Primitive reflexes are involuntary, instinctual movements present in newborns. These automatic reactions occur in response to stimuli like touch or sound and are crucial for an infant's survival and early development.

From helping them feed to preparing for later motor skills, primitive reflexes serve essential purposes. However, as the child matures, these reflexes typically fade, making way for voluntary movements.

Why Do These Reflexes Happen?

The primary function of primitive reflexes is to protect the infant and assist in early stages of motor development. These reflexes ensure the baby can feed, respond to sudden movements, and eventually gain more complex motor control. The presence of reflexes also signals healthy neurological development. Any abnormalities in the persistence or absence of reflexes could indicate developmental delays or issues.

The Various Primitive Reflexes in Infants

Let's explore some common primitive reflexes, when they emerge, and at what stage they disappear:

Moro Reflex ("Startle Reflex")

This reflex happens when an infant suddenly feels as though they are falling or when startled by a loud noise. The baby will throw out their arms and legs, then pull them back in.

Disappears by: 2 months

Stepping Reflex

Hold the baby upright with their feet touching a solid surface, and they will make stepping movements. This reflex is the precursor to walking.

Disappears by: 2 months

Rooting Reflex

When the side of the baby’s mouth is stroked, they will turn their head in that direction, looking for food. This helps the baby locate the mother’s breast or bottle for feeding.

Disappears by: 4 months

Sucking Reflex

Touch the roof of an infant’s mouth, and they will begin sucking. This reflex is crucial for breastfeeding or bottle-feeding.

Disappears by: 4 months

Palmar Grasp Reflex

When you place something in a baby’s hand, they will grip it tightly. This reflex helps develop motor control and strengthens hand muscles.

Disappears by: 5 to 6 months

Tonic Neck Reflex (Fencer Reflex)

When a baby’s head is turned to one side, the arm on that side extends, while the opposite arm bends. This reflex is often compared to the pose of a fencer.

Disappears by: 5 to 7 months

Plantar Grasp Reflex

Stroke the sole of the baby’s foot, and their toes will flex or curl inward. This reflex prepares the baby’s feet for standing and walking.

Disappears by: 9 to 12 months

Babinski Reflex

Stroke the sole of the foot, and the baby’s big toe will bend back while the other toes fan out. This reflex is normal in infants but its persistence in older children or adults can be a sign of a neurological issue.

Disappears by: 12 to 24 months

When Do These Reflexes Go Away?

Each reflex has its timeline for fading. Most reflexes disappear within the first 6 months of life, as the baby’s brain matures and voluntary motor skills begin to take over.

Reflexes like the Babinski reflex may take up to two years to disappear. The disappearance of these reflexes is a normal part of development, signalling that the baby is progressing neurologically.

Why Monitoring Reflexes is Important

Pediatricians often check these reflexes during routine check-ups to assess the baby’s neurological health. Delayed disappearance or the absence of certain reflexes can signal developmental concerns that may require further medical attention.

Summers are here and the temperature has already risen enough and records are itself being broken in the month of April. It is safe to say that the heatwave season has arrived early—and its peak is yet to come. For many, the soaring heat is uncomfortable, but for pregnant women, it can be particularly dangerous. Expecting mothers are among the most vulnerable groups during extreme weather, and dehydration is one of the most serious concerns.

Pregnancy already brings about significant physical and hormonal changes. In hot weather, these changes can be further amplified, increasing the risk of fatigue, fluid loss, and complications related to dehydration. Staying cool and hydrated is not just important—it’s critical for the well-being of both the mother and the developing baby.

Why Pregnancy Increases the Risk

Pregnant women experience several physical demands such as body aches, weight gain, and fluctuating hormone levels. These are intensified by high temperatures. The body naturally loses more fluids through sweating in summer, and this can lead to dehydration if not replenished in time.

During pregnancy, hydration plays a key role in supporting increased blood volume, stabilizing body temperature, and ensuring the baby gets adequate nutrients through the placenta. Loss of fluid without sufficient intake can lead to serious outcomes, including low amniotic fluid, low birth weight, and even early labor.

Warning Signs of Dehydration

Spotting the early signs of dehydration can prevent the condition from worsening. Some common symptoms to watch out for include:

• Persistent dry mouth or excessive thirst
• Dark yellow urine or reduced frequency of urination
• Feeling tired, dizzy, or lightheaded
• Headaches or migraines
• Dry, flushed skin
• Constipation or difficulty in bowel movements
• Muscle cramps or spasms
• Swollen feet or ankles (which may sometimes be linked to dehydration rather than just pregnancy)

Drinking 8 to 12 cups (about 2 to 2.5 litres) of water a day is generally recommended to stay properly hydrated. However, individual needs may vary depending on activity levels, body weight, and weather conditions.

What to Eat and Drink

Staying hydrated isn’t just about drinking water. Nutritional choices can support hydration, energy levels, and overall health during the summer months. Here are some practical diet tips:

• Eat small, frequent meals to avoid overheating and to maintain energy throughout the day.
• Incorporate hydrating fruits and vegetables such as cucumbers, watermelons, and oranges. These are not only rich in water but also contain important vitamins and minerals.
• Coconut water is a natural source of electrolytes and helps prevent cramps and fatigue.
• Leafy greens like spinach are rich in iron and folate, which are essential during pregnancy.
• Avoid sugary sodas or fruit juices that may lead to energy crashes. Opt instead for plain water, infused water, or herbal teas.
• Monitor salt intake, as too much sodium can cause bloating and increase swelling.
• Add healthy fats from avocados, seeds, and nuts to support fetal brain development and provide sustainable energy during long, hot days.

Staying Safe in the Heat

Extreme heat can make pregnancy more challenging, but with a proactive approach to hydration and nutrition, many of the associated risks can be managed. Choosing water-rich foods, avoiding prolonged exposure to direct sunlight, wearing breathable clothing, and staying indoors during peak heat hours are all simple steps that can go a long way in keeping expectant mothers safe during summer.

In the end, listening to the body’s signals—especially signs of dehydration—and responding with care is key to navigating pregnancy through the heatwave season.

When your child gets sick, the instinct to reach for antibiotics can be almost automatic. After all, we've been told for decades that these powerful medicines are the key to conquering infection. But what if that "quick fix" is silently reshaping your child's health in ways you never suspected? From tummy aches to chronic allergies and even developmental issues, new science is sounding an alarm about what repeated antibiotic therapy may be doing to little bodies. Before you agree to that next prescription, let's dig deeper into what's really happening in your child's system — and how to safeguard their health for the long term.

Antibiotics have revolutionized modern medicine with fatal infections such as pneumonia, strep throat, and bacterial meningitis are now curable, and thousands of lives have been saved through proper use of the medications. But when children—particularly those younger than two years old—are concerned, new studies are cautioning parents and doctors to be careful.

A recent study in the Journal of Infectious Diseases reviewed the medical histories of more than one million infants in the United Kingdom. The results showed a troubling correlation: frequent and early use of antibiotics in childhood might have lasting effects on a child's health. From disrupting gut microbiomes to making a child more susceptible to chronic diseases like asthma and allergies, overuse of antibiotics might be subtly changing pediatric health outcomes globally.

One of the deepest effects that antibiotics have on a child's body is by disrupting the gut microbiome. These drugs, though meant to target bad bacteria, sometimes fail to discriminate—destroying good bacteria within the gut in addition to the bad. And that's where problems start.

The gut contains trillions of microbes that contribute to digestion, immunity, and even mental health. If this system is disrupted at an early age, it may pave the way for inflammatory and allergic reactions in the future. The Rutgers Health study found that children who received multiple rounds of antibiotics before they were two were much more likely to develop asthma, food allergies, and hay fever. Risk increased with every course of antibiotics given.

Could Antibiotics Influence Brain Development?

The same research suggested an even more shocking possibility: a possible connection between early antibiotic exposure and intellectual disabilities. While this correlation needs more study for verification, it highlights a developing concern among pediatricians and researchers that the knock-on effects of antibiotic use may extend far beyond the gut.

Interestingly, the research did not identify a uniform association between antibiotic exposure and other conditions like ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, or autoimmune diseases like celiac disease and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. This difference highlights the complexity of how antibiotics affect the developing body, and it is implied that some systems are more susceptible to their impact than others.

In addition to the single child, a very real concern is growing antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic overuse and misuse—e.g., treating viral infections such as colds or flu with them—lead directly to drug-resistant bacteria. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), more than 35,000 people in the U.S. alone die every year from antibiotic-resistant infections.

What is particularly distressing about this for children is that they will frequently be put on antibiotics for viral infections for which antibiotics will not help. For instance, most upper respiratory infections, the common cold, and certain ear infections are viral and do not respond to antibiotic treatment. Yet, according to studies, half of all antibiotics prescribed to children are for precisely these conditions.

In a bid to eliminate genetic or environmental confounders, scientists even matched up siblings—one who was given antibiotics at an early age and one who wasn't. The outcomes were the same: children who had been exposed to more antibiotics were at greater risk for allergic and respiratory disease, family background aside. That's another indication that antibiotics themselves—rather than genetic factors or family practices—are likely the prime mover.

How Can Parents Properly Use Antibiotic at Home?

First, know that antibiotics are strong allies but not magical fixes. Antibiotics only work against bacterial illnesses—not viruses. Colds, flu, and most coughs won't benefit from antibiotics and could actually hurt a child's overall health if these medicines are abused.

If your child receives a prescription of antibiotics:

• Always use the dosing prescribed by your doctor and take the medication in full even if your child is already on the mend.
• Never reuse old antibiotics or pass them between kids.
• Request your child's doctor to determine whether a viral or bacterial infection, and if it even needs antibiotics.
• Store antibiotics properly and eliminate unused drug in authorized take-back locations.

Doctors everywhere are promoting what's called "antibiotic stewardship"—the responsible use of antibiotics. Hospitals, clinics, and public health organizations are developing new standards to guarantee antibiotics are only used when absolutely necessary. But parents have a role to play, too. By asking the question of whether each antibiotic is really needed, following proper hygiene, and keeping up with vaccinations, families can stem the danger of resistance and safeguard their child's future health.

Antibiotics are a part of modern medicine, but not without danger—particularly in growing bodies. As important as they should never be avoided when medically indicated, parents and pediatricians need to balance their use, particularly in children younger than two years old. As scientists learn more about the ways these medications affect long-term health, one thing is certain, less is more for antibiotics early in life.

A new research from the University of Southern California (USC) has made a crucial new discovery regarding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), highlighting the vital, yet often unexamined, connection between gut health and brain activity. The research, published in Nature Communications, highlights how children with autism may be experiencing metabolic disorders due to gut imbalance, which in turn affect the manufacture of neurotransmitters, and as a result, have an impact on behavior linked to the condition.

By current estimates around the world—1% of the world's population suffers from ASD, emerging findings such as these provide promise for more specific and effective treatments.

The idea that brain and gut constantly communicate with one another is no longer speculative; it's an essential biological truth. The gut-brain axis, a highly evolved, two-way communication network, involves neural, hormonal, and immunological signaling pathways. Interestingly, the gut possesses its own nervous system, the enteric nervous system, and it contains more neurons than the spinal cord.

We demonstrated how gut metabolites affect the brain, and also how the brain affects behavior," says Professor Lisa Aziz-Zadeh, lead author on the USC study and researcher for USC's Brain and Creativity Institute. "Essentially, the brain is the middleman between autism behavior and gut health.".

About 90% of the neural communications between gut and brain go in the direction from gut to brain, and not the other way around, suggesting that gut health may have a more predominant role in dictating emotions and behavior than is currently accepted.

Gut-Brain Connection in Autism

The USC study recruited 84 children aged 8 to 17—43 with autism and 41 neurotypical controls. Researchers collected behavioral information, conducted brain scans, and analyzed stool samples to examine gut metabolites. Of note was the "tryptophan pathway," which degrades the amino acid tryptophan to synthesize serotonin and other neuroactive compounds.

Since serotonin is needed for emotional regulation, socialization, and learning—and 90% of it is produced in the gut—results point to the huge impact that gut health can have on brain function. Abnormality in serotonin production through the imbalance of gut microbes has a direct link with normal ASD symptoms, including social challenges and repetitive behavior.

Gut Microbe Imbalances Could Predict A Child's Risk For Autism

Children with ASD also frequently present with gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms—constipation, diarrhea, bloating, and gastroesophageal reflux—frequently more than their neurotypical peers. They are not mere comorbidities, but could very likely be part of the pathology of ASD.

"The gut-brain axis may offer a way to explain the overlap of GI and behavioral symptoms," adds Sofronia Ringold, a USC doctoral student and study coauthor. "If we can reach the gut, we may also be able to influence behavior and thought."

This is where the tryptophan pathway plays a crucial role. Gut bacteria determine the metabolism of tryptophan, and as a result, serotonin production is influenced, and brain activity linked to autism-related behavior may be altered.

What Triggers Autism?

ASD has also been shown to result from a combination of epigenetic, genetic, and environmental factors. It has been linked with immune dysregulation, raised inflammatory cytokine levels, and complications during birth. However, the gut is increasingly being identified as a potentially modifiable factor in this intricate web.

Children with ASD typically possess higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α, which may be responsible for breaking gut permeability and perpetuating a cycle of gut and brain inflammation.

Further, gut microbial dysbiosis—a distortion of the gut microbiome—has been shown to reduce microbial diversity and compromise intestinal barrier integrity. This can promote "leaky gut" conditions that allow toxic chemicals to enter the bloodstream and become transported to the brain, where they may trigger or exacerbate symptoms of ASD.

Treating ASD

While current treatments for ASD are largely behavioral interventions and, in some cases, medication, the study sets the stage for non-invasive treatments. These include microbiota-targeted treatments such as probiotics, diet, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).

Probiotics, for instance, have already shown promise in improving neurotransmitter production and cognitive function. But more stringent, extended trials need to be conducted to ascertain their safety and efficacy as a treatment for the symptoms of ASD.

One of the biggest challenges remains in addressing ARFID (Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder), which affects children with autism. This feeding style reduces food diversity and also complicates the restoration of microbial balance with diet alone.

The USC research adds to a growing global effort to understand ASD from a more holistic view. As the number of autism diagnoses continues to grow, especially in developing countries where awareness and resources are still emerging, this research can inform future recommendations for treating the condition more holistically—starting not just with the brain but the gut.