For those who have not experienced a migraine, perhaps it would seem just another headache. But for someone like me who has suffered through migraines that will last over a week even with medication, I can definitely tell you that it's much more. The ache is not confined to the head; it's the whole experience. Nausea, sensitivity to light, and throbs so bad it makes simple tasks unbearable. It also comes with an emotional burden—the loneliness and frustration are pretty unbearable. Through the years, realizing how hormones are also implicated in triggering and exacerbating my migraines has helped change the game in my dealing with these episodes.

What are Hormonal Migraines?

Hormonal migraines are caused by fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone, the two main female hormones. These hormones are essential for the reproductive system, regulating menstrual cycles and pregnancy. They also have an effect on brain chemicals, such as serotonin and dopamine, which affect mood and pain perception. When hormone levels fluctuate, such as during menstruation, pregnancy, or menopause, they can destabilize the pathways in the brain, causing migraines.

According to Dr. Shivananda Pai, Consultant Neurology, migraines are more than a neurological disorder. "Migraines represent a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. In women, hormonal fluctuations are a critical trigger that amplifies sensitivity to pain," he explains. Hormonal headaches are particularly challenging because they are influenced by multiple life stages, from puberty to post-menopause. Common causes include:

• Menstrual periods: Estrogen levels significantly drop just before menstruation often triggers a migraine.
• Pregnancy: Hormones can act to relieve symptoms or aggravate them during different times of pregnancy.
• Menopause: The hormonal fluctuation during menopause can intensify a migraine, while some women tend to find relief.
• Hormonal therapies: Birth control and HRT tend to level off hormone balances in some individuals but will exacerbate a migraine in others.

Complex Role of Hormones in Women’s Neurological Health

Estrogen and Neurological Health

Estrogen, often called the "hormone of femininity", does more than regulate reproductive functions. It is a powerful influencer of brain health. Estrogen modulates the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin, which regulates mood and pain perception, and dopamine, associated with reward and pleasure.

During stages of hormonal stability, like in pregnancy's latter months, women may have fewer migraines because of the steady elevation of estrogen. However, a sudden downfall in estrogen destabilizes these chemicals in the brain, sending a heightened sensitivity for migraine triggers.

Menstrual Migraines

The most common form of hormonal migraines is menstrual migraines, which occur in response to the steep decline in estrogen levels just before menstruation. These are typically more intense and less responsive to standard treatment. The timing of these migraines provides clear evidence of the role hormones play in neurological health.

Pregnancy and Hormonal Shifts

Pregnancy is a rollercoaster of hormones. Although many women experience relief from migraines as a result of the constantly elevated levels of estrogen, some women, particularly in the first trimester, worsen. This individual variability is a characteristic of hormonal migraine triggers.

Hormonal Therapies and Management of Migraine

Hormonal treatments, such as oral contraceptives and HRT, have had mixed reviews regarding their use in managing migraine. Some women fare better with the stabilization the treatment provides, whereas others suffer worsening symptoms. This will depend on the nature and dose of the hormones used.

Post-Menopause: Migraine Remission or Continued Struggles?

For most women, menopause brings relief from their migraines. The decline in frequency and severity often accompanies stability in hormone levels. Even so, the susceptibility remains with some towards other forms of triggers including stress and sleep deprivation, not to forget diet-related factors and continues the saga of migraines well after the menopausal stages.

Effect on Neurological Health Due to Hormonal Changes

The relationship of hormones to neurological health goes beyond migraines. Hormonal changes have profound effects on a woman's brain in general.

Mood Disorders: Estrogen helps stabilize mood by regulating serotonin. Its decline at menopause increases the risk of mood swings and depression.

Neurodegenerative Diseases: Estrogen is neuroprotective, stimulating the growth and repair of brain cells. Its absence in post-menopausal women has been associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive decline.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Hormonal cycles may affect the course of MS, a disease that occurs more frequently in women than in men. Estrogen's anti-inflammatory effects provide transient protection during pregnancy, reducing relapse rates in women with MS.

"The intricate interplay between hormones and neurological health underscores the need for gender-specific treatment approaches," says Dr. Pai.

Managing Hormonal Migraines: Practical Strategies

While hormonal changes are inevitable, several strategies can help manage migraines effectively:

1. Tracking Your Cycle

Understanding your menstrual cycle can help identify patterns and predict when migraines might occur. This knowledge allows for preventive measures, such as scheduling medications or adjusting lifestyle habits.

2. Consulting Specialists

Working with a neurologist or gynecologist can help develop a personalized treatment plan. Options might include hormonal therapies, triptans, or preventive medications tailored to your specific needs.

3. Adopting a Healthy Lifestyle

A well-balanced diet, regular exercise, and stress management are all integral parts of managing migraines. For instance, magnesium-rich foods and hydration can help reduce the frequency and severity of attacks.

4. Exploring Preventive Therapies

For people with severe or frequent migraines, preventive medications, such as beta-blockers or CGRP inhibitors, may be prescribed. These medications stabilize brain activity and therefore reduce the chances of migraine during hormonal fluctuations.

5. Mind-Body Techniques

Techniques like yoga, meditation, and biofeedback can enhance wellness and reduce the debilitating effects of stress-one of the most common migraine triggers.

Research that was once in its embryonic stage continues to shed more light on the role of hormones in migraines and other neurological conditions. Further breakthroughs in genetic testing might enable doctors to predict, at least in a way, how an individual would react to hormonal therapies. The importance of gender-specific approaches is gradually being realized, which involves differentiating between the plight of women with migraines from others.

As Dr. Pai puts it, "Empowering women with knowledge about the hormonal underpinnings of migraines can lead to better, more personalized care. With the right strategies, migraines can be effectively managed, allowing women to lead fuller, healthier lives.

Migraines are not headaches; they are a complex neurological condition that deeply impacts the lives of millions of women. Understanding the role of hormones in triggering and exacerbating migraines is a vital step toward better management and relief.

Awareness, proactive care, and advances in medical research can help women regain their lives from the grip of hormonal migraines. Whether tracking cycles, adopting healthier habits, or seeking tailored medical care, every step taken toward understanding and managing migraines is a step toward empowerment.

Dr Shivananda Pai is a Consultant Neurology at KMC Hospital Dr B R Ambedkar Circle in Mangalore, India.

Brandes JL. The Influence of Estrogen on Migraine: A Systematic Review. JAMA. 2006;295(15):1824–1830. doi:10.1001/jama.295.15.1824

Sacco S, Ricci S, Degan D, Carolei A. Migraine in women: the role of hormones and their impact on vascular diseases. J Headache Pain. 2012 Apr;13(3):177-89. doi: 10.1007/s10194-012-0424-y. Epub 2012 Feb 26. PMID: 22367631; PMCID: PMC3311830.

As the 2026-27 flu season begins in the US, doctors are reminding people that influenza can cause more than just cough, fever and a runny nose. Symptoms can come on suddenly and affect the entire body, with some patients also developing gastrointestinal symptoms.

During the 2025-2026 flu season, influenza caused at least 32 million illnesses, 390,000 hospitalizations and 24,000 deaths in the US, according to preliminary data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

According to the World Health Organization, from February through August 2026, influenza A(H1N1)pdm09, A(H3N2) and influenza B viruses circulated across regions. Influenza A viruses predominated in most regions, while influenza B dominated in Northern and Western Africa, North America and Eastern Asia.

While it is too early to know what the season ahead will look like, knowing the range of flu symptoms can help people recognize the infection. These include the classic symptoms of sudden fever, chills, body aches and extreme fatigue, as well as vomiting and diarrhea in some children.

Flu Symptoms Can Come On Suddenly

Also read: WHO Sets 2027 Flu Vaccine Strains; US States Can Now Order Free COVID Shots For Kids

Influenza commonly affects the nose, throat and lungs, but its symptoms can be widespread.

The most common symptoms include:

• Fever

• Chills

• Body aches

• Extreme fatigue

• Headache

• Sore throat

• Runny or stuffy nose

• Cough

Family physician Carlos Galindo at Texas Health Family Care said fever, chills and body aches are the classic flu combination. People may also develop a sore throat, runny nose and headache, according to the American Medical Association.

Unlike the gradual tiredness that can accompany a cold, flu-related fatigue can be intense.

Galindo described it as significant lethargy and malaise, with some patients feeling completely drained.

Watch For Severe Body Aches And Fatigue

One of the key features doctors want people to recognize is how quickly influenza can make someone feel unwell.

Family physician Christopher Zipp of Atlantic Health in Morristown, New Jersey, said flu symptoms can develop over just a few hours, with fever, chills and body aches appearing suddenly.

However, flu symptoms can overlap with those of other respiratory infections, so symptoms alone cannot always confirm that someone has influenza.

Read More: Fall Vaccines 2026: US Doctors Issue COVID, Flu And RSV Jab Guidance

Children Can Have Vomiting And Diarrhea

Flu symptoms can also differ between children and adults. While fever, chills, body aches and respiratory symptoms are common, children may also develop gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhea.

These symptoms can occur alongside cough, sore throat or other signs of respiratory infection.

When Can Flu Become Serious?

For most people, influenza is an unpleasant but temporary illness. However, it can sometimes lead to complications such as pneumonia and hospitalization, particularly in people with underlying health conditions.

Symptoms that become severe or worsen rather than improve warrant medical attention, especially among people at higher risk of complications.

In the US, many flu cases are seen between January and March, although influenza can circulate outside the peak season as well.

Doctors generally recommend flu vaccination around September or October to build protection before activity increases. It takes about two weeks for the body to develop protection after vaccination. Flu vaccination has been shown to reduce flu-related doctor visits by about 40% to 60%.

A mammogram is routinely used to detect early signs of breast cancer, but the imaging test may also provide clues about a woman’s cardiovascular health.

Cardiovascular disease is a major cause of death among women. Yet, experts say heart disease in women can be overlooked because symptoms and risk factors may differ from the patterns traditionally associated with men.

Why Heart Disease Can Be Missed In Women

Prof Rob Galloway of University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, writing in the Daily Mail, highlighted the need to identify cardiovascular disease in women earlier.

Citing a 2021 The Lancet study, he noted that women with cardiovascular disease remain “understudied, under-recognized, underdiagnosed, and undertreated.”

Galloway said he regularly sees women, particularly those in their 60s, arriving in emergency care with heart attacks after earlier symptoms were attributed to less serious causes.

“If that had been recognized, she could have been admitted, and if needed, had a stent (a mesh tube) inserted to open the artery before it was blocked,” he wrote.

“The truth is doctors are not as good as we should be at recognizing heart disease in women, or understanding their risk,” he added.

Also read: New Breast Cancer Guidelines Recommend Mammograms Every Two Years for Women

Heart Attack Symptoms May Look Different In Women

Women may experience heart attacks differently, with symptoms such as breathlessness, nausea, fatigue, or back, neck and jaw pain. Galloway also highlighted female-specific risk factors, which include:

• Preeclampsia or high blood pressure during pregnancy
• Gestational diabetes
• Premature menopause
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

He said these factors are not always routinely included when assessing a woman’s long-term cardiovascular risk.

What Can A Mammogram Reveal About Heart Risk?

Read More: World Heart Day: You Feel Healthy. But Plaque May Already Be Building In Your Arteries In Your 20s

Prof Galloway suggested that routine breast screening could potentially offer another opportunity to identify cardiovascular risk.

When blood vessels are damaged, calcium can accumulate in their walls. Mammograms can sometimes detect calcium deposits in the arteries of the breast, known as breast arterial calcification (BAC).

BAC is different from calcium buildup in the coronary arteries, but its presence has been associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular events such as heart attack and stroke. Some radiologists may therefore flag the finding to the treating doctor.

Could AI Detect Heart Risk From Mammograms?

Prof Galloway also discussed the potential role of artificial intelligence in identifying and measuring breast arterial calcification.

A European Heart Journal study used AI to assess mammograms from over 123,500 US women. Compared with no calcification, mild breast arterial calcification was linked to a 30% higher cardiovascular event risk, moderate to 75–80% higher risk, and severe to roughly three times higher risk.

The association persisted even after researchers accounted for established cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity and smoking.

Could Mammograms Become A Cardiovascular Screening Tool?

Prof Galloway said that the potential advantage is that the mammogram has already been performed for breast screening. If arterial calcification is identified, that information could potentially be included with the screening result and prompt a broader cardiovascular risk assessment.

Depending on the woman's overall risk, doctors could then consider measures such as more intensive management of blood pressure or cholesterol.

A coronary artery calcium scan is another way to assess calcium buildup in the arteries supplying the heart. It uses a CT scan to detect and measure coronary artery calcium and can help inform cardiovascular risk assessment in appropriate patients.

One may dismiss a recurring ache in the calf or thigh while walking may as a muscle problem, especially if it settles after sitting or resting. But leg pain that repeatedly appears while walking and eases after resting can sometimes be due to a circulation problem called peripheral artery disease (PAD).

The condition occurs when arteries that carry blood to the legs become narrow, usually because of atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty deposits inside blood vessels. PAD can be a major sign that the same process is also affecting arteries in the heart and brain, signalling a major cardiovascular risk.

Women May Overlook The Symptoms

PAD can be difficult to identify as it comes with ordinary symptoms that could be tied to ageing or injury.

Women may neglect it as they may experience less obvious symptoms, including leg fatigue or weakness rather than cramping. This is because the condition is affected by ageing, fitness, or a musculoskeletal issue.

Apart from pain during walking, possible symptoms include:

• Coldness in one foot or leg
• Numbness or weakness
• Changes in the colour of the skin
• Shiny skin or loss of hair on the legs
• Slow-growing toenails
• Sores on the feet or legs that heal slowly
• Pain in the feet or toes, particularly at rest in more advanced disease

Some people may have no noticeable symptoms, which can allow PAD to progress without being recognised, leading to serious complications.

Also read: Pomegranate Compound Improves Heart Function By Up To 80% In Early Heart Failure Study

Canada Is Focusing On PAD

The disease has prompted a new Canadian National Action Plan for Peripheral Artery Disease, developed by vascular medicine experts with the Canadian Society of Vascular Medicine and Prevention.

The plan calls for greater public awareness, early diagnosis, better access to ankle-pressure testing, supervised exercise programmes and specialised care for people with PAD.

The Canadian authors also said that PAD can be difficult to diagnose in rural and remote communities and among Indigenous Peoples and other underprivileged populations, where access to preventive care and vascular specialists may be limited.

Delayed diagnosis can mean that people are only identified after complications like non-healing wounds or in severe cases, amputation.

Also read: 100% Blockage At 18, 25% Patients Under 40: On World Heart Day, Cardiologists Reveal An Alarming Heart Attack Pattern

PAD Is Linked To Heart Attack And Stroke

PAD happens when narrow and blocked arteries reduce the blood flow to the legs. When the muscles need more oxygen during walking or exercise, the reduced circulation can lead to uncomfortable pain.

This symptom is called intermittent claudication. The pain usually develops in the calf, thigh or buttocks while walking. It subsides or improves after sitting down or resting the legs.

But not everyone experiences this symptom. Some may instead face tiredness in the legs, weakness, numbness or just discomfort, making it easier to dismiss the symptom.

The arteries in the legs are not isolated from the rest of the circulatory system. PAD is usually caused due to atherosclerosis, the same underlying process that could lead to thinner arteries supplying blood to the heart and brain.

As a result, having PAD can indicate a higher risk of heart attack, stroke and other cardiovascular complications. PAD risk increases with age, but several other lifestyle factors can contribute. These include:

• Smoking
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure
• High cholesterol
• Family history of vascular disease

Diabetes is most likely to contribute to PAD because persistently high blood sugar can damage blood vessels and increase the risk of atherosclerosis.

When To Seek Medical Intervention?

If leg pain or unusual tiredness keeps interrupting your life, it is worth getting evaluated, particularly if you have diabetes, smoke or have high blood pressure or cholesterol.

Doctors may assess circulation using an ankle-brachial index (ABI), which compares blood pressure in the ankle with blood pressure in the arm.

Treatment may include lifestyle changes like increasing physical activity, quitting smoking and medicines to manage cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood clotting risk. Severe blockages may also require medical procedures.