For those who have not experienced a migraine, perhaps it would seem just another headache. But for someone like me who has suffered through migraines that will last over a week even with medication, I can definitely tell you that it's much more. The ache is not confined to the head; it's the whole experience. Nausea, sensitivity to light, and throbs so bad it makes simple tasks unbearable. It also comes with an emotional burden—the loneliness and frustration are pretty unbearable. Through the years, realizing how hormones are also implicated in triggering and exacerbating my migraines has helped change the game in my dealing with these episodes.

What are Hormonal Migraines?

Hormonal migraines are caused by fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone, the two main female hormones. These hormones are essential for the reproductive system, regulating menstrual cycles and pregnancy. They also have an effect on brain chemicals, such as serotonin and dopamine, which affect mood and pain perception. When hormone levels fluctuate, such as during menstruation, pregnancy, or menopause, they can destabilize the pathways in the brain, causing migraines.

According to Dr. Shivananda Pai, Consultant Neurology, migraines are more than a neurological disorder. "Migraines represent a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. In women, hormonal fluctuations are a critical trigger that amplifies sensitivity to pain," he explains. Hormonal headaches are particularly challenging because they are influenced by multiple life stages, from puberty to post-menopause. Common causes include:

• Menstrual periods: Estrogen levels significantly drop just before menstruation often triggers a migraine.
• Pregnancy: Hormones can act to relieve symptoms or aggravate them during different times of pregnancy.
• Menopause: The hormonal fluctuation during menopause can intensify a migraine, while some women tend to find relief.
• Hormonal therapies: Birth control and HRT tend to level off hormone balances in some individuals but will exacerbate a migraine in others.

Complex Role of Hormones in Women’s Neurological Health

Estrogen and Neurological Health

Estrogen, often called the "hormone of femininity", does more than regulate reproductive functions. It is a powerful influencer of brain health. Estrogen modulates the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin, which regulates mood and pain perception, and dopamine, associated with reward and pleasure.

During stages of hormonal stability, like in pregnancy's latter months, women may have fewer migraines because of the steady elevation of estrogen. However, a sudden downfall in estrogen destabilizes these chemicals in the brain, sending a heightened sensitivity for migraine triggers.

Menstrual Migraines

The most common form of hormonal migraines is menstrual migraines, which occur in response to the steep decline in estrogen levels just before menstruation. These are typically more intense and less responsive to standard treatment. The timing of these migraines provides clear evidence of the role hormones play in neurological health.

Pregnancy and Hormonal Shifts

Pregnancy is a rollercoaster of hormones. Although many women experience relief from migraines as a result of the constantly elevated levels of estrogen, some women, particularly in the first trimester, worsen. This individual variability is a characteristic of hormonal migraine triggers.

Hormonal Therapies and Management of Migraine

Hormonal treatments, such as oral contraceptives and HRT, have had mixed reviews regarding their use in managing migraine. Some women fare better with the stabilization the treatment provides, whereas others suffer worsening symptoms. This will depend on the nature and dose of the hormones used.

Post-Menopause: Migraine Remission or Continued Struggles?

For most women, menopause brings relief from their migraines. The decline in frequency and severity often accompanies stability in hormone levels. Even so, the susceptibility remains with some towards other forms of triggers including stress and sleep deprivation, not to forget diet-related factors and continues the saga of migraines well after the menopausal stages.

Effect on Neurological Health Due to Hormonal Changes

The relationship of hormones to neurological health goes beyond migraines. Hormonal changes have profound effects on a woman's brain in general.

Mood Disorders: Estrogen helps stabilize mood by regulating serotonin. Its decline at menopause increases the risk of mood swings and depression.

Neurodegenerative Diseases: Estrogen is neuroprotective, stimulating the growth and repair of brain cells. Its absence in post-menopausal women has been associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive decline.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Hormonal cycles may affect the course of MS, a disease that occurs more frequently in women than in men. Estrogen's anti-inflammatory effects provide transient protection during pregnancy, reducing relapse rates in women with MS.

"The intricate interplay between hormones and neurological health underscores the need for gender-specific treatment approaches," says Dr. Pai.

Managing Hormonal Migraines: Practical Strategies

While hormonal changes are inevitable, several strategies can help manage migraines effectively:

1. Tracking Your Cycle

Understanding your menstrual cycle can help identify patterns and predict when migraines might occur. This knowledge allows for preventive measures, such as scheduling medications or adjusting lifestyle habits.

2. Consulting Specialists

Working with a neurologist or gynecologist can help develop a personalized treatment plan. Options might include hormonal therapies, triptans, or preventive medications tailored to your specific needs.

3. Adopting a Healthy Lifestyle

A well-balanced diet, regular exercise, and stress management are all integral parts of managing migraines. For instance, magnesium-rich foods and hydration can help reduce the frequency and severity of attacks.

4. Exploring Preventive Therapies

For people with severe or frequent migraines, preventive medications, such as beta-blockers or CGRP inhibitors, may be prescribed. These medications stabilize brain activity and therefore reduce the chances of migraine during hormonal fluctuations.

5. Mind-Body Techniques

Techniques like yoga, meditation, and biofeedback can enhance wellness and reduce the debilitating effects of stress-one of the most common migraine triggers.

Research that was once in its embryonic stage continues to shed more light on the role of hormones in migraines and other neurological conditions. Further breakthroughs in genetic testing might enable doctors to predict, at least in a way, how an individual would react to hormonal therapies. The importance of gender-specific approaches is gradually being realized, which involves differentiating between the plight of women with migraines from others.

As Dr. Pai puts it, "Empowering women with knowledge about the hormonal underpinnings of migraines can lead to better, more personalized care. With the right strategies, migraines can be effectively managed, allowing women to lead fuller, healthier lives.

Migraines are not headaches; they are a complex neurological condition that deeply impacts the lives of millions of women. Understanding the role of hormones in triggering and exacerbating migraines is a vital step toward better management and relief.

Awareness, proactive care, and advances in medical research can help women regain their lives from the grip of hormonal migraines. Whether tracking cycles, adopting healthier habits, or seeking tailored medical care, every step taken toward understanding and managing migraines is a step toward empowerment.

Dr Shivananda Pai is a Consultant Neurology at KMC Hospital Dr B R Ambedkar Circle in Mangalore, India.

Brandes JL. The Influence of Estrogen on Migraine: A Systematic Review. JAMA. 2006;295(15):1824–1830. doi:10.1001/jama.295.15.1824

Sacco S, Ricci S, Degan D, Carolei A. Migraine in women: the role of hormones and their impact on vascular diseases. J Headache Pain. 2012 Apr;13(3):177-89. doi: 10.1007/s10194-012-0424-y. Epub 2012 Feb 26. PMID: 22367631; PMCID: PMC3311830.

Living in cities could mean your home may be located near a busy road, railway line or airport. It also means your comfort and sleep may get interrupted from time to time due to excessive noise. After living at such places for a long time, the traffic sounds may turn into white noise for you but it does not mean that you are completely safe.

A recent study says that constant exposure to transportation noise could increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, even if you sleep for seven to nine hours every night.

The research, presented at the American Heart Association's (AHA) Scientific Sessions 2026, found that adults who were exposed to higher levels of transportation noise were more likely to face cardiovascular risk factors like high cholesterol, hypertension and diabetes.

The study is based on health records of 108,051 adults, with an average age of 57 years. They also used US government data to estimate average daily transportation noise levels around the homes of participants. About one-third of participants were exposed to noise levels exceeding 50 decibels.

Transportation Noise & Heart Disease Risk

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The study found that exposure to transportation noise above 50 decibels could lead to an 8% to 10% increase in the development of major cardiovascular risk factors. The researchers examined average 24-hour transportation noise levels above 45 to 50 decibels. These estimates included noise from road traffic, trains and aircraft.

Dr Joseph Nguyen, an internal medicine resident at Massachusetts General Hospital, emphasised that the measurements represented daily averages rather than peak noise levels. "These levels are similar to moderate rainfall or typing on a keyboard," he explained.

He added that noise levels can rise considerably during specific events. Subway stations, for example, may reach more than 100 decibels when trains arrive or depart.

In terms of individual risk factors, the strongest link was observed with high cholesterol, followed by high blood pressure and diabetes.

One of the findings that stood out in the study is that the cardiovascular risk due to transportation noise was the same among those with healthy as well as unhealthy sleep schedules.

For this study, unhealthy sleep was defined as having a diagnosed sleep disorder or regularly sleeping fewer than seven hours or more than nine hours per night.

"The key finding of our study is that the relationship between noise exposure and cardiovascular disease events, and the number of cardiovascular risk factors developed, was similar among people with and without unhealthy sleep, suggesting that healthy sleep is not protective against adverse heart impacts of noise exposure," said Dr Nguyen.

"We expected that disordered sleep would influence the relationship between noise exposure and heart disease. It was surprising to find that sleep health appeared to play no role," he added.

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How Could Noise Exposure Affect Heart Health?

Experts believe that long-term exposure to transportation noise may activate the body's stress response, which could affect cardiovascular health over time.

Even when people do not wake up or feel disturbed by noise, their bodies may still unconsciously respond to these environmental sounds.

This could result in changes in stress hormones, blood pressure and other processes. Repeated exposure may contribute to cardiovascular strain over time.

How To Reduce Exposure To Traffic Noise?

Researchers suggested several ways people living in noisy neighbourhoods could reduce exposure inside their homes:

• Install thicker windows, doors and walls to improve sound insulation.
• Place bedrooms in the quietest areas of the home.
• Plant dense trees and vegetation around the property.
• Consider using earplugs while sleeping.

Dr Nguyen said the findings highlight the importance of reducing environmental noise through better urban planning and infrastructure for protecting long-term cardiovascular health.

Women's bodies have long been understudied, and even a simple touch can trigger unexpected sadness, anguish or homesickness. One such experience is Sad Nipple Syndrome (SNS), which many women may experience without knowing it has a name. Triggered by nipple stimulation, it remains poorly understood and largely unresearched.

Some describe it as sudden sadness or anguish, while others compare it to homesickness, nostalgia or an upsetting memory. Even putting on a shirt can trigger the sensation.

SNS is not an officially recognised medical diagnosis. Although it can affect anyone, it appears more common in women, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

Sad Nipple Syndrome Can Begin In Childhood

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Some people experience SNS from childhood without understanding what is happening.

“I was probably a child when I first noticed: ‘Why does touching my nipple make me sad?’” 28-year-old Sandra told The Guardian.

She kept the experience to herself until college, when she searched for answers online. “I realized I wasn’t crazy,” she said.

The Role Of Oxytocin And Dopamine

One possible explanation involves oxytocin, commonly known as the 'love hormone'.

Dr Vladimír Kraus from the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics at Pavol Jozef Šafárik University suggests oxytocin may be involved because nipple stimulation triggers its release.

Oxytocin plays a role in bonding and emotional connection. It is released during physical touch and also plays a role in childbirth and breastfeeding.

Kraus theorises that changes in oxytocin signalling could trigger negative emotions associated with SNS, although this has not been established.

A study found that breast stimulation increased oxytocin levels in both lactating and non-lactating women, suggesting the response is not limited to breastfeeding.

Maureen Sweeney, a psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner and women's behavioural health specialist at the Cleveland Clinic, suggests oxytocin release may also influence dopamine production. Reduced dopamine could contribute to dysphoric feelings, although this remains a proposed explanation.

Other possible factors include postpartum mental health, body image concerns, anxiety and intimate partner violence. Sweeney also points to premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), suggesting that some people may be more sensitive to normal hormonal fluctuations.

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How Is SNS Similar To D-MER And Post-Coital Dysphoria?

Dysphoric milk ejection reflex (D-MER) causes sudden negative emotions, such as sadness, homesickness and guilt, just before or during milk letdown while breastfeeding. It can also affect the breastfeeding experience and maternal bonding.Post-coital dysphoria (PCD), meanwhile, involves sadness, anxiety or irritability after sexual activity.

While SNS and D-MER are associated with nipple stimulation, PCD occurs after orgasm. Despite the different triggers, people can experience similar emotional and physical sensations, lactation consultant Alia Macrina Heise was quoted as saying to The Guardian.

She suggested hormonal interactions may be involved in all three conditions, although their precise mechanisms remain unclear.

Is There A Treatment For Sad Nipple Syndrome?

There are no specific treatments for SNS, and more research is needed to understand its causes. However, coping strategies and psychological support may help manage the distress. Sweeney suggests cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) as one approach to addressing symptoms, even when a therapist is unfamiliar with SNS.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as forever chemicals, have sparked interests of epidemiologists who are investigating their links to chronic diseases like high blood pressure, cardiovascular conditions and certain cancers.

PFAS are a large group of chemicals made by humans that have been used in industrial processes and everyday consumer products. They are found in cosmetics, kitchen supplies, clothing, carpets, upholstery, food packaging and other household materials.

They are called forever chemicals because their strong chemical bonds make them resistant to breaking down in the environment. Some PFAS can also exist in the human body, allowing exposure to accumulate over time.

At the American Public Health Association's (APHA) 2026 Annual Meeting, researchers presented findings on how people are exposed to these chemicals everyday through food and drinking water, and what long-term health consequences may be related to that exposure.

Health Problems Linked To Forever Chemicals

Some studies have identified that PFAS exposure could lead to colon and liver cancers, low birth weight, development problems in children, complications during pregnancy and other metabolic disorders. Research has also identified its exposure to cholesterol, changes in liver enzymes, reduced antibody responses to some vaccines and hypertension during pregnancy.

However, this does not establish that PFAS exposure directly causes every condition reported in epidemiological studies. Health effects may depend on the chemical type, exposure levels, duration of exposure and individual factors.

The US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) states that research into PFAS health effects is in progress.

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Food Is A Significant Source Of PFAS

Besides drinking water, food can also contribute to exposure, prompting researchers to investigate whether dietary habits influence the relationship between PFAS and chronic health conditions.

One study conducted in Massachusetts examined the relationship between dietary patterns, PFAS exposure and blood pressure. Researchers found stronger associations between a specific PFAS compound and high blood pressure among people who regularly consumed fish.

Yuting Wang, a postdoctoral research fellow at Silent Spring Institute and one of the researchers involved in the study, said animal-based foods appeared to contain more PFAS than plant-based foods.

One possible explanation, she suggested, was that meat consumption could increase inflammation, which may influence the relationship between PFAS exposure and blood pressure.

"Better understanding interactions among diet, PFAS and blood pressure may improve clinical recommendations to prevent hypertension," Wang said. "Future studies should account for exposure to environmental pollutants in addition to nutrient benefits of certain food," she added.

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PFAS Found In US Drinking Water Supplies

According to the US Geological Survey, approximately 45% of drinking water samples collected across the country showed traces of PFAS. Researchers have also investigated PFAS contamination in 11 townships in southeastern Pennsylvania. Their testing found that several drinking water supplies had PFAS concentrations exceeding the US Environmental Protection Agency's 2021 regulatory limits.

The team also examined two decades of mortality data from the townships to investigate whether areas with higher PFAS levels in public drinking water has different patterns of disease and death.

Erin Kulick, an assistant professor of epidemiology and biostatistics at Temple University College of Public Health who worked on the Pennsylvania study, said, "Southeastern Pennsylvania experiences overlapping burdens of PFAS exposure and cardiovascular disease."

Scientists Are Concerned About Long-Term Exposure

PFAS contamination is a public health concern because these chemicals can remain in the environment for long periods and reach people. Some PFAS accumulate in the body, and repeated exposure may increase the amount present over time.

The National Institutes of Health identifies several health concerns linked with exposure to certain PFAS, including immune system effects, increased cholesterol, liver changes, pregnancy-related complications and some cancers.

The US Environmental Protection Agency has established legally enforceable drinking water limits for six PFAS compounds, including perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS).

Researchers say more comprehensive monitoring, better assessment and long-term epidemiological studies are needed to understand how PFAS contamination affects communities.