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One of the commonest causes of illness, a sore throat often clears up on its own, but knowing what's causing it is important to treat it properly. Viral, bacterial, or caused by allergic elements - these kinds of sore throats have different characteristics that need different responses.
Sore throats have several origins, including infection and environmental factors. Some common causes include:
Viral infections: Viruses cause 90% of sore throat cases. Sore throats may result due to flu or common cold as well as those from chickenpox and measles that can all cause irritation.
Bacterial Infections: Streptococcus bacteria, the most common cause of strep throat, is the most common bacterial source. Strep throat is contagious and can lead to complications if untreated.
Allergies: Pollen, pet dander, and mold can trigger throat irritation, often accompanied by postnasal drip, sneezing, and watery eyes.
Environmental Factors: Dry air, pollution, and smoke can dry out or irritate the throat, creating a scratchy sensation.
Other Causes: GERD, vocal strain, even tumors may be responsible for chronic sore throats.
Determining your cause of sore throat requires analysis of symptoms that accompany it, how long the sore throat lasts, and how bad the sore throat is.
The viruses that cause a sore throat are usually similar to a cold in their symptoms and tend to be milder than bacterial infections.
- Red, swollen throat without white patches
- Persistent cough
- Runny nose and nasal congestion
- Fever, usually mild
Duration: Viral infections last for 7–10 days without antibiotics.
Treatment: Home remedies, such as warm fluids, saltwater gargling, and over-the-counter pain relievers can help alleviate it.
Also Read: Flu Season Grips 40 States In US, CDC Reports Alarming Numbers
Bacterial sore throats, mainly strep throat, are more severe and require prompt medical attention to prevent complications.
- Red and swollen tonsils with white patches or streaks of pus
- High fever
- Absence of a cough
- Nausea, vomiting, or stomach pain (especially in children)
- Small red spots on the roof of the mouth
Diagnosis: Rapid strep tests or throat cultures confirm the presence of bacteria.
Treatment: Antibiotics are necessary to eliminate the infection. Without treatment, complications like rheumatic fever or abscesses can develop.
Throat irritation is caused by postnasal drip. Allergies create a buildup and drip of mucus down the back of the throat.
- Irritation of the throat and ears
- Runny eyes, sneezing, and nasal congestion
- These symptoms are usually relieved by antihistamines or removal from the source of the allergen
Duration: Allergic sore throats are sustained for as long as the allergens are exposed.
A sore throat should be taken to a doctor if:
- The condition lasts more than a week.
- There is shortness of breath or swallowing becomes painful.
- Swelling is too pronounced or the pain in the throat is extreme.
- High fever, rash, or joint pain occur along with the sore throat.
- A child shows signs of dehydration or refuses fluids due to throat pain.
Early diagnosis can prevent complications and speed recovery.
Viral infections and allergies often respond well to non-invasive treatments:
Let your body rest sufficiently. Humidifying dry air will help keep the throat moist, especially when winter is on its way.
Bacterial infections require antibiotics such as penicillin or amoxicillin. Finish the treatment completely to avoid reoccurrence or resistance.
Prevention is better than cure, and simple lifestyle changes can reduce your risk:
Understanding the cause of your sore throat—whether viral, bacterial, or allergic—is key to effective treatment and recovery. While many sore throats resolve on their own, seeking timely medical advice for persistent or severe symptoms can prevent complications. Prioritize self-care, and don’t hesitate to consult a doctor when needed. Remember, your throat’s health is a vital part of your overall well-being.
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Beyond lung cancers, air pollution fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is increasing mortality for breast as well as liver cancers, according to a global study led by the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC), including researchers from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).
The important study showed that long-term exposure to PM2.5 increases the overall risk of developing cancer and the chances of dying from it compared with those living in cleaner environments.
For every 10 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) increase in PM2.5 exposure, the overall risk of cancers increases by more than 11 per cent. At the same time, the risk of death also increases by more than 12 per cent for every 10 µg/m³ increase in PM2.5 exposure.
The researchers argued that while other common risk factors like tobacco and alcohol are being targeted with notable progress, air pollution is silently eroding the gains being made.
“We have made huge strides in reducing deaths from cancer, but polluted air is silently undermining that progress. It is a risk people cannot opt out of, and one that disproportionately affects women, children, and people living in poverty,” Cary Adams, CEO, UICC.
“The cancer community continues to make progress in addressing other major risk factors, including tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections such as HPV and HBV that cause cervical and liver cancers. It is increasingly clear that air pollution must also be recognized as a major and preventable factor that increases the risk of developing cancer and of dying from the disease,” added Dr Elisabete Weiderpass, Director, IARC.
The study, based on data from 42 meta-analyses and systematic reviews published between 2019 and 2024, showed significantly strong associations for liver, colorectal, and breast cancers.
As per recent data from the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), PM₂.₅ exposure contributes to 434,000 lung cancers per year, accounting for more than a quarter of preventable lung cancers in women and nearly one in six in men.
In addition to lung cancer risk, the study noted that the rising levels of PM2.5 are associated with

According to the researchers, people living in low- and middle-income countries bear the greatest overall burden. These countries frequently lack the resources to reduce pollution at source or to provide timely access to cancer prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
The challenge is compounded by the projected rise in global cancer cases, expected to increase from 20 million in 2022 to 35 million by 2050. People at risk include:
The researchers underscored that the evidence presented in the report is already sufficient to justify decisive action to reduce exposure to polluted air. They called upon policymakers to make required changes across energy, transport, industry, and urban planning to reduce the risk of cancer from air pollution.
The study urged the need for properly implementing effective interventions that are well-established. These include:
Overhydration can cause electrolyte imbalance in kidney disease patients. (Photo credit: AI generated)
During the summer, it is important to stay hydrated, but for kidney patients, excessive intake of fluids is just as dangerous as not drinking enough. Most people are encouraged to drink extra fluids during hot weather; however, patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and those on dialysis must exercise greater control over their daily hydration and fluid intake because their bodies cannot effectively excrete excess fluids, leading to potential complications.
Dr Anupam Roy, Additional Director – Nephrology and Kidney Transplant at Aakash Healthcare Multi-Specialty Hospital, Dwarka, said, “Overhydration occurs when the body retains more fluid than it is able to eliminate. For kidney patients, overhydration typically leads to fluid overload as a result of excessive fluid accumulation in the body. Early signs of fluid overload may include swelling in the feet, ankles, and/or face. If not treated, fluid may continue to build up and cause the lungs to fill with fluid, resulting in shortness of breath and difficulty lying down. If left untreated, gaseous exchange in the lungs will be impaired, and the patient will require immediate medical treatment for pulmonary oedema (a life-threatening complication).”
The effect of excess fluid on the heart and blood pressure is considered a significant concern. Excess fluid results in additional strain on the cardiovascular system, leading to high blood pressure. This extra workload may also increase the risk of serious complications (e.g., heart failure) for individuals who already have hypertension or heart disease. Dialysis patients are at particular risk of developing complications since they rely on regularly scheduled treatments to remove excess fluid. Excessive fluid consumption between dialysis sessions may complicate and increase the discomfort associated with removing excess fluid during dialysis.
Overhydration may also cause an imbalance in electrolytes, such as sodium. Consuming a large amount of water without adequate intake of electrolytes could dilute sodium in the bloodstream, resulting in hyponatraemia. Symptoms of hyponatremia vary from mild (nausea and headaches) to severe (confusion, seizures, and, in extreme cases, coma). This condition can potentially be life-threatening for kidney disease patients, who often have difficulty maintaining an optimal balance of electrolytes.
Many people forget that they can obtain fluids from certain foods and drinks, such as soup, yogurt, watermelon, and tea or juice. In the summertime, people tend to consume these types of foods and drinks more often, which can cause them to exceed the recommended daily fluid intake. Many also believe that drinking extra water will flush toxins out of their system; however, when the kidneys are not functioning properly, excess fluids can be difficult to remove from the body.
Dr Roy said that proper hydration for someone with kidney disease needs to be planned carefully. The amount of fluid a person can consume depends on their stage of kidney disease, urine output, and whether they are on dialysis. Some simple strategies can help maintain proper hydration: use small cups for drinks, consume fluids throughout the day rather than all at once, avoid foods high in salt (as these increase thirst), and track daily fluid intake.
The main reason for drinking fluids is to ensure the right amount is consumed; therefore, the most important aspect of hydration is maintaining balance. Maintaining this balance can help prevent complications and allow individuals to remain as healthy as possible. When kidney patients understand their hydration needs and receive proper guidance during the summer, they can avoid causing further harm by placing additional strain on their bodies.
Credit: U-WIN
The U-WIN (Universal Immunization Win) platform has been transformative and has helped India tackle the concerning burden of zero-dose children, said Dr NK Arora, an immunization expert and member of the National Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation in India (NTAGI).
In an exclusive conversation with HealthandMe during World Immunization Week 2026, Dr Arora, Executive Director of The INCLEN Trust International, traced the journey of the U-WIN portal and explained how it has strengthened vaccine uptake in the country.
U-WIN is a digital platform and app to help people find vaccination centers near their residences, manage vaccination appointments at health facilities, and maintain vaccination records.
Dr Arora noted that the U-WIN portal created a digital ecosystem that played a critical role in registration, appointment scheduling, vaccine tracking, and real-time monitoring.
U-Win was launched in October 2024 and is available in 12 languages, including English.
Dr Arora, also the chair of the COVID-19 and HPV vaccine working group, shared that during the deadly COVID pandemic in 2020—around July—it became very clear that to vaccinate 140 crore people, some kind of IT platform is needed that will track individuals who had been vaccinated, especially when they needed their second dose, and later, booster doses.
“Everything started somewhere around July 2020, and by January 2021, we had the Co-WIN platform. By mid-April, things were streamlined. The platform gives us a long list of individuals who have been vaccinated. It also helps to know who has been left out of the vaccination.
“It is like a registry of human beings who are getting immunized. And we could send reminders, we could send certificates, and we can also tell the individual when to get their second and third dose,” the expert said.
He noted that as COVID became less intense toward the end of 2021, serious discussions began on using the same platform for routine immunization. This is where the concept of U-WIN came in 2022. It has now been piloted and is gradually being used.
The UWIN now has the mechanism to ensure that immunization is completed for everyone who registers. One user can register up to 10 people in one mobile number, including citizens/guardians, pregnant women, infants (0-1 years), children (1-7 years), and adolescents (7-19 years).
“The key issue is that tracking provides two or three important inputs. First, it ensures that everyone is getting vaccinated and that it is not dependent on memory. There is a proper record—whether a person or child has received vaccines and what their current status is, including whether the schedule is complete,” Dr Arora said.
“Second, one of the main reasons for missing or delaying the next dose was that mothers often did not remember. Fathers contributed very little to this process, but they also became involved because of the reminder system,” he added.
Another important role of U-WIN is tackling the so-called zero-dose children—those who have never been vaccinated.
“About 4–5 per cent of our eligible population falls into this category, meaning they have not received even the first pentavalent dose. On the face of it, 4–5 per cent may not seem like a huge problem. But when we look at the absolute numbers—out of 26 million—it translates into a very large number, which we cannot afford to miss. So tracking helps identify these children through the micro-plan system”.
Also read: World Immunization Week: Vaccines Are Like Insurance, They’re Safe—Take Them, Says Dr NK Arora
“When a child is vaccinated, we know when boosters are due—at one and a half years, then at five years. But none of us remembers this. Even among well-informed parents, this is often forgotten. This system helps address that gap,” Dr. Arora said.
Further, when the same individual becomes eligible for vaccines like HPV—typically between 9 and 14 years—there is again a gap that needs to be addressed.
Certification is another benefit, as it creates a documented process, particularly for programs like oral polio vaccination.
Dr. Arora highlighted that in case of any future pandemic-like situation that requires repeated vaccinations, “we have a mechanism in place”.
“This IT platform has truly transformed the system. There is also a lot of discussion about using similar platforms for TB patients, pregnant women, and other flagship programs like non-communicable diseases. So, for India, digitalisation is at its best when we talk about U-WIN.”
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