Cold sores are a common and often frustrating skin issue. While they may look like harmless blisters, cold sores are actually caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV).

What Causes Cold Sores?

Cold sores are caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), which comes in two types: HSV-1 and HSV-2.

HSV-1 is the primary cause of cold sores, usually appearing around the mouth.

HSV-2 generally causes genital herpes but can also lead to cold sores.

While the appearance of cold sores caused by both HSV-1 and HSV-2 can look similar, their locations tend to differ. However, it is possible for HSV-1 to cause sores on the genitals and for HSV-2 to appear on the mouth.

How Do Cold Sores Spread?

Cold sores are highly contagious and can spread easily. The virus can be passed on through:

• Kissing or skin contact
• Sharing food, drinks, or cosmetics (such as lip balm)
• Oral sex, which can spread both cold sores and genital herpes

Even when a cold sore isn’t visible, the virus can still be spread through close contact. This makes prevention and management key to reducing outbreaks and the risk of infecting others.

Once someone contracts HSV, it stays in the body for life. While the virus remains dormant most of the time, it can reactivate and cause new sores, especially during periods of:

• Stress
• Illness
• A weakened immune system

Unfortunately, there’s no cure for the herpes virus, but the symptoms can be managed.

Symptoms of Cold Sores

Cold sores don’t just appear out of nowhere. Before the sore is visible, you may notice a tingling or burning sensation around the lips or face, which can occur several days before the sore forms. This is the best time to begin treatment to shorten the outbreak.

When a cold sore does appear, it often looks like a red, raised blister filled with fluid. The blister can be painful to touch, and there may be more than one. Cold sores usually last around two weeks and are contagious until they crust over and heal.

The Five Stages of a Cold Sore

Cold sores go through distinct stages as they develop and heal:

• Tingling and itching: You may feel these symptoms about 24 hours before the blister appears.
• Blisters: Small, fluid-filled blisters form, typically around the mouth.
• Bursting: The blisters burst and form painful sores.
• Scabbing: The sores dry out, scab over, and may itch or crack.
• Healing: The scab falls off, and the cold sore heals.

Risk Factors for Cold Sores

Certain factors can trigger the reactivation of HSV, leading to cold sores. These include:

• Infection, fever, or cold
• Sun exposure
• Stress
• Menstruation
• Dental work or injury
• Weakened immune system due to conditions like HIV/AIDS, eczema, or chemotherapy

Managing and Treating Cold Sores

There’s no cure for cold sores, but several treatments can ease the symptoms and help manage outbreaks.

Topical Ointments and Creams

Over-the-counter antiviral creams like docosanol (Abreva) or prescription ointments like penciclovir (Denavir) can help reduce the duration of an outbreak, especially if applied at the first sign of a cold sore.

Oral Medications

Prescription antiviral medications like acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir can also help, particularly for people who have frequent or severe outbreaks. Your doctor may recommend taking these medications regularly to prevent future outbreaks.

Home Remedies

There are also some home remedies that may provide relief, such as:

• Applying ice or a cold washcloth to the sore
• Using aloe vera gel or lemon balm lip balms
• Applying petroleum jelly to ease discomfort

Canker Sores vs. Cold Sores: What's the Difference?

While cold sores and canker sores may seem similar, they are quite different:

Cold sores are caused by the herpes virus, appear around the mouth, and are contagious.

Canker sores are not contagious and appear as ulcers inside the mouth or throat.

Preventing the Spread of Cold Sores

To avoid spreading cold sores:

• Wash your hands frequently
• Avoid close contact with others during an outbreak
• Don’t share food, drinks, or personal items like lip balm

Cold sores can be a persistent issue, but with proper care and management, you can reduce the frequency of outbreaks and prevent spreading the virus to others.

The NHS has released updated guidance for people who are currently taking clonazepam, a commonly prescribed medicine that belongs to the benzodiazepine group. According to the health service, clonazepam is often used to control seizures or fits linked to epilepsy, ease involuntary muscle spasms, and help manage panic disorders. It is also prescribed in some cases for people with restless legs syndrome (RLS). NHS Inform notes that “around 1 in 10 people experience restless legs syndrome at some stage in their life.”

Explaining how the drug works, the NHS says it increases levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a chemical in the brain that has a calming effect. By boosting GABA, clonazepam can reduce anxiety, prevent seizures or fits, and relax tight or overactive muscles.

Who Can Take Clonazepam?

Clonazepam is only available on prescription and comes as tablets or a liquid. Most adults aged 18 and over can take either form. In certain cases, children as young as one month old may be prescribed clonazepam to treat epilepsy, as per NHS.

That said, there are situations where extra caution is needed. People who are due to have surgery or dental treatment, those who are pregnant, trying to conceive, or who have sleep-related conditions may be advised to stop taking the medicine. However, these are not the only groups the NHS says should be careful.

Clonazepam is not suitable for everyone. Before starting treatment, patients are advised to tell their doctor if they:

• have ever had an allergic reaction to clonazepam or any other medicine
• have myasthenia gravis, a condition that causes muscle weakness
• have sleep apnoea, which affects breathing during sleep
• have lung, liver, or kidney problems
• have spinal or cerebellar ataxia, which can cause shakiness, poor balance, and slurred speech
• have had problems with alcohol or drug use in the past
• have recently experienced bereavement, depression, or thoughts of self-harm or suicide
• have been diagnosed with a personality disorder
• are trying to get pregnant, are already pregnant, or are breastfeeding
• are due to have a general anaesthetic for an operation or dental procedure

What Are The Side Effects Of Clonazepam?

Like many medicines, clonazepam can cause side effects. Common effects, which affect more than 1 in 100 people, include disturbed sleep such as vivid dreams, feeling sleepy during the day, light-headedness, dizziness, unsteadiness, and muscle weakness.

When it comes to long-term use, the NHS warns that clonazepam can lead to withdrawal symptoms if taken for a prolonged period. Because of this risk, people who have been prescribed the drug for more than four weeks may have their dose reduced slowly when stopping treatment, rather than stopping suddenly.

The NHS also stresses that this is not a complete list of side effects. Patients are advised to read the information leaflet that comes with their medicine for full details.

Clonazepam: Serious Side Effects To Watch Out For

Although uncommon, some people may experience serious side effects while taking clonazepam. The NHS advises contacting a doctor or calling 111 immediately if you notice:

• yellowing of the whites of the eyes or skin, which may be less noticeable on darker skin tones, as this could point to liver problems
• seeing or hearing things that are not there, or believing things that are untrue
• problems with coordination or controlling movements
• swollen ankles, a fast heartbeat, coughing, and extreme tiredness, which could be signs of heart issues
• easy bruising, fatigue, nosebleeds, and breathlessness, which may indicate blood disorders
• changes in mood, such as talking more than usual, feeling unusually excited, restless, irritable, or aggressive, which are more likely in children or adults over 65
• Anyone experiencing memory problems, such as difficulty remembering things or amnesia, is advised to book an appointment with their doctor.

In rare cases, clonazepam can trigger a serious allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis.

Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only and is not intended as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified doctor, pharmacist, or healthcare provider before starting, stopping, or changing the dosage of any medication.

Every winter, people in Delhi prepare themselves for stinging eyes, tight chests and coughs that refuse to go away as thick smog blankets the city. Now, fresh research from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) suggests there is another hidden danger in the polluted air. According to the study, Delhi’s winter smog may also be carrying antibiotic-resistant bacteria, adding to health worries in one of the most polluted cities on the planet.

The research, titled Distribution and antibiotic resistance patterns of airborne staphylococci in urban environments of Delhi, India, was published in Nature – Scientific Reports. It found disturbingly high levels of antibiotic-resistant “superbugs” in both indoor and outdoor air across the city, particularly in winter when pollution levels spike. The findings point to polluted air acting as a possible vehicle for antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which experts already consider one of the gravest global health threats.

Antibiotic-Resistant Superbugs In Delhi Air Polluton: What Did The Study Investigate?

As per Indian Express, to understand what people might be breathing in, the researchers collected air samples from a range of everyday locations across Delhi, such as:

• Crowded market areas
• Urban slum neighbourhoods
• Residential apartments
• A sewage treatment plant located within the JNU campus

Both indoor and outdoor air samples were taken during summer, monsoon and winter to track how bacterial levels and resistance patterns shifted with the seasons.

Across every setting, airborne bacteria levels were far above the World Health Organization’s recommended safe limit for microbial exposure. In some winter samples, bacterial counts exceeded 16,000 colony-forming units per cubic metre, which is more than 16 times higher than the WHO guideline.

What raised even greater concern was the type of bacteria detected. Many belonged to the Staphylococcus group, which includes strains linked to skin infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections and illnesses commonly acquired in hospitals.

According to the researchers, a large share of the airborne bacteria were identified as methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS), meaning they do not respond to commonly prescribed antibiotics. Among these:

1. 73 per cent were multidrug-resistant, showing resistance to several classes of antibiotics
2. Many were resistant to macrolides, beta-lactams, trimethoprim, gentamicin and other commonly used drugs
3. Genetic analysis confirmed the presence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs)

Notably, 14 out of 36 multidrug-resistant samples carried the mecA gene, a well-known marker that makes bacteria resistant to methicillin and related antibiotics.

Why Is Winter Smog Linked To Drug-Resistant Bacteria?

The study showed that levels of airborne drug-resistant bacteria were highest in winter, while monsoon rains led to a sharp drop in outdoor contamination.

Researchers point to a few likely reasons:

• Poor air movement in winter traps pollutants and microbes near ground level
• High levels of particulate matter may give bacteria surfaces to cling to and spread
• Cooler temperatures and lower humidity allow bacteria to survive longer in the air

On the other hand, rainfall during the monsoon appears to clear bioaerosols from the air, reducing bacterial concentrations outdoors.

Who Is Most At Risk From Airborne Superbugs?

Many healthy people may breathe in these bacteria without becoming sick. However, the risk is much higher for:

• People with weakened immune systems
• Those living with chronic lung conditions
• Individuals with open wounds
• Older adults and young children

The researchers note that inhaling drug-resistant bacteria does not automatically lead to infection. Still, it raises the risk of infections that are harder to treat, especially if the bacteria manage to enter vulnerable parts of the body.

Researchers say consuming excessive short-form videos on social media may lead to 'brain rot' and cause cognitive decline, increase the risk of depression and worsen behavior in young children and adults.

Named as the 2024 Oxford University Word Of The Year, 'brain rot' is defined as the supposed deterioration of a person’s intellectual state due to overconsumption of low-quality online content such as TikTok videos, Instagram reels and YouTube Shorts.

Until now, brain rot was considered to be merely internet slang but now multiple studies show that the condition can, indeed, impact overall brain health and pave the way for neurodegenerative diseases.

According to a literature review published in Psychological Bulletin, a journal of the American Psychological Association, scientists found links between heavy consumption of such videos and increased symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress and loneliness.

Additionally, the September 2025 study also found that extreme intake of short form videos (SFVs) can worsen cognitive functioning and weakening emotional control as well as regulation.

Moreover, an October 2025 study from Capella University, Minneapolis which summarized 14 studies on SFVs discovered that people who regularly watch videos, ranging between 15 to 60 seconds, were prone to developing 'TikTok Brain' and suffered from low attention spans.

The review noted, "Reports from educators and parents describe teens struggling to focus in class or during prolonged tasks, behavior changes often attributed to constant stimulation from social media scrolling."

Based on these results, Keith Robert Head, a doctoral student in social work at Capella University and study author commented, "So one of the questions that would be interesting for researchers to study is: Are these ADHD diagnoses actually ADHD, or is it an impact from the continued use of short-form video?"

But Some Doctors Disagree

James Jackson, a neuropsychologist at Vanderbilt University Medical Center told NBC News, "The narrative that the only people who are worried about this are grumpy old grandpas who are yelling at you to get off their lawn or the idea that if you’re concerned about this you’re not in step with the times, I think that’s really simplistic."

He also noted that SFVs can be useful through the opportunities it creates for learning as well as community-building and social media users should seek to maintain a balance.

“There are people that engage with short-form videos in ways that are value-added, for sure. But if their engagement is pulling them away from other, more healthy opportunities, if it is isolating them from other people, if it is creating situations where they’re less and less likely to just sit around and be bored, I think that’s a problem," he said.

What now?

She further noted that it may take many years of study to determine whether cognitive changes associated with SFVs consumption are reversible and whether they can qualify as an 'addiction'

“It might be too early to claim universal doom,” Gupta said. “The research for alcohol, cigarettes and drugs took 75 years or more to develop. But I would be surprised if, in the next five to 10 years, we do not have similar signs validating the moral panic that we have around short-form videos.”