The global challenge of HIV/AIDS remains one of the most pressing public health issues today. According to the latest data from UNAIDS, around 38.4 million people worldwide are living with HIV/AIDS, underlining the need for not only medical intervention but also comprehensive awareness, education, and social change. Despite the significant strides made in treatment and prevention, the confusion surrounding the relationship between HIV and AIDS still persists.

Young people have become influential advocates in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Research from UNICEF shows that youth-led initiatives can lower HIV transmission rates by as much as 45% in targeted communities. These young activists utilize digital platforms and peer-to-peer education to dispel myths, promote safe practices, and foster supportive environments for those affected by HIV/AIDS.

Dr Gowri Kulkarni, an expert in Internal Medicine, explains that while the terms HIV and AIDS are often used interchangeably, they are distinctly different. "HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the immune system, whereas AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a condition that occurs when HIV severely damages the immune system," she clarifies. To understand the implications of these differences, it's important to explore the fundamental distinctions between the two.

1. HIV is a Virus; AIDS is a Syndrome

HIV is the virus responsible for attacking the body’s immune system, specifically targeting CD4 cells, which are crucial for the body’s defense against infections. As HIV progresses, it destroys these cells, weakening the immune system over time. If left untreated, this continuous damage can lead to AIDS.

AIDS, on the other hand, is a syndrome, not a virus. Dr Kulkarni further elaborates that AIDS is a collection of symptoms and illnesses that emerge when the immune system is severely compromised due to prolonged HIV infection. It represents the most advanced stage of HIV, and is characterized by very low CD4 counts or the onset of opportunistic infections like tuberculosis, pneumonia, or certain cancers.

2. Not Everyone with HIV Develops AIDS

A key distinction to remember is that not everyone with HIV will progress to AIDS. Thanks to advancements in medicine, particularly antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals living with HIV can manage the virus and maintain a healthy immune system for many years, or even decades, without ever developing AIDS. ART works by suppressing the virus to undetectable levels, effectively preventing the damage HIV would otherwise cause to the immune system.

Without treatment, however, HIV progresses through three stages:

- Acute HIV Infection: This stage occurs shortly after transmission and may include symptoms like fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.

- Chronic HIV Infection: Often asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic, the virus continues to damage the immune system but at a slower rate.

- AIDS: This is the final stage, marked by severe immune damage and the presence of infections that take advantage of the compromised immune defenses.

3. HIV is Transmissible; AIDS is Not

Another key distinction between HIV and AIDS is the way in which they are transmitted. HIV is highly contagious and can be transmitted through the exchange of bodily fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. It is primarily spread through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding.

AIDS, however, is not transmissible. It is not a disease that can be passed from one person to another. Rather, AIDS is the result of untreated, advanced HIV infection and is a direct consequence of the virus’s damage to the immune system.

4. Diagnosis Methods Differ

HIV and AIDS are diagnosed through different methods. HIV is diagnosed through blood tests or oral swabs that detect the presence of the virus or antibodies produced by the immune system in response to the virus. Early detection of HIV is crucial, as it allows for timely intervention and treatment, which can prevent the virus from progressing to AIDS.

AIDS, on the other hand, is diagnosed using more specific criteria. Dr Kulkarni notes that the diagnosis of AIDS is made when the individual’s CD4 cell count falls below 200 cells/mm³, or when opportunistic infections or certain cancers (such as Kaposi's sarcoma or lymphoma) are detected. Diagnosing AIDS involves a more thorough assessment of the individual’s immune function and overall health, as opposed to just the detection of HIV.

5. Treatment Goals Are Different

The treatment goals for HIV and AIDS differ significantly, although both involve antiretroviral therapy (ART). For HIV, the primary treatment goal is to suppress the virus to undetectable levels, thus maintaining a strong immune system and preventing further transmission of the virus. People living with HIV can often live long, healthy lives if they adhere to ART.

For individuals diagnosed with AIDS, the treatment plan becomes more complex. While ART remains an essential part of managing the virus, treatment for AIDS also focuses on addressing the opportunistic infections and secondary health complications associated with severe immune suppression. The goal of treatment for AIDS is not only to manage the HIV virus but also to improve the quality of life and extend survival by treating these secondary health issues.

Role of Community Engagement in Combatting HIV/AIDS

While the medical community has made great strides in managing HIV, the battle to curb its transmission is also a social and cultural issue. Dr Daman Ahuja, a public health expert, highlights that HIV/AIDS awareness and education are vital to reducing transmission rates and supporting those affected by the virus. "Young people, especially, have become key advocates in the fight against HIV/AIDS," says Dr Ahuja. "Research from UNICEF shows that youth-led initiatives can lower HIV transmission rates by as much as 45% in targeted communities."

Additionally, grassroots activism plays a significant role in raising awareness and addressing stigma. As the World Health Organization reports, community-based interventions have been proven to increase HIV testing rates and improve treatment adherence, which are crucial in the fight against the pandemic.

The ultimate goal of organizations like UNAIDS is to eliminate the HIV/AIDS pandemic by 2030. Achieving this requires global collaboration, from medical treatment advancements to public health strategies, education, and advocacy. Dr Kulkarni’s insight underscores the importance of early detection, treatment adherence, and community support in the fight against HIV/AIDS.

Dr Gowri Kulkarni is Head of Medical Operations at MediBuddy and Dr Daman Ahuja, a public health expert and has been associated with Red Ribbon Express Project of NACO between 2007-12.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in India. According to various estimates, it accounts for about 26% of all cancers diagnosed among women, with nearly 2,00,000 new cases estimated in India each year.

Family history is not the only risk

Family history is an important risk factor, as some women inherit genetic changes that can increase their risk of developing breast cancer. Hereditary breast cancers can result from inherited genetic susceptibility, including mutations in high- or moderate-penetrance genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are among the best-known genes associated with hereditary breast cancer. Therefore, knowing family history is important.

But the absence of a family history does not mean that women are free from risk. In fact, around 80-85% of breast cancer cases occur in women with no known family history. These are generally referred to as sporadic cases.

The risk factors

Breast cancer risk factors can broadly be divided into those that cannot be changed and those that can potentially be modified.

Among the non-modifiable factors are age and certain reproductive and hormonal factors. Longer lifetime exposure to hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone can increase breast cancer risk. Early menstruation, later menopause and having a first pregnancy at a later age are some factors associated with longer hormonal exposure.

Potentially modifiable risk factors are largely lifestyle-related and include alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, excess body weight (particularly after menopause) and tobacco exposure. Maintaining a healthy weight, staying physically active, avoiding tobacco and limiting alcohol can help reduce the risk.

Also read: Amanda Peet’s Breast Cancer Wasn’t A Lump: What Was Her First Sign?

Five signs that should never be ignored

The five important warning signs include:

• A new, hard lump in the breast or armpit, particularly if it is increasing in size.
• A change in the size or shape of one breast, especially when it creates a new difference in breast symmetry.
• Unusual nipple discharge, particularly spontaneous discharge that is clear or bloody.
• Changes involving the nipple, such as a newly inverted nipple.
• Changes in the breast skin, including thickening, dimpling, puckering or a change in its appearance or texture.

These signs do not automatically mean cancer. But they should not be ignored.

Also read: Mammogram May Spot Hidden Heart Risk That Doctors Miss In Women

Get checked if you notice a change

If you notice any of these signs, particularly a new or persistent change in your breast, do not ignore it or try to diagnose it yourself. Seek medical evaluation promptly. A doctor will assess the breast and, if necessary, recommend what is known as a triple assessment: a clinical examination, breast imaging such as ultrasound or mammography, and tissue diagnosis when required. In selected cases, an MRI may also be recommended.

Tissue sampling may involve Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology or a core/true-cut biopsy. Together, these assessments help determine whether a breast abnormality is benign or malignant. It is important to distinguish this from screening. Screening is done in women who do not have symptoms, with the aim of detecting breast cancer at an early stage. When a woman has a symptom or notices a new breast change, she needs diagnostic evaluation rather than simply screening.

Don't panic: most breast lumps are benign

Finding a lump can understandably cause anxiety. However, most breast lumps, particularly in younger women, are benign. Common causes include fibroadenomas, breast cysts and fibrocystic changes.

Fibrocystic changes are often influenced by hormonal fluctuations. A lump may become more prominent or painful one to two weeks before menstruation and become smaller or less uncomfortable after the period. Some women may also experience a feeling of heaviness or tenderness in the breast.

An injury to the breast can also result in tissue damage and inflammation, producing a lump-like area. Therefore, a lump should not be assumed to be cancer, but neither should it be dismissed without appropriate evaluation.

Early detection can make a significant difference in the successful management of breast cancer. Women should remember that having no family history does not mean they are not at risk. At the same time, a breast lump or other change does not necessarily indicate cancer. The key is to know your own breasts, be aware of the warning signs and seek timely medical evaluation whenever a new or persistent change is noticed.

By Dr Megha B - Surgical Oncologist in Trichy - Breast, GI & Cancer Surgery Specialist, Kauvery Hospital

ADHD may be less about an inability to pay attention and more about difficulties sustaining engagement with tasks, according to a US psychiatrist who has questioned whether the condition's name adequately captures its symptoms.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects attention, executive function, impulse control, and activity levels. It typically begins in childhood, with symptoms appearing before age 12, and frequently persists into adulthood.

What Are The Symptoms Of ADHD?

According to the National Institute of Mental Health, ADHD symptoms fall into two primary categories:

Inattention: Difficulty sustaining focus, missing details, making careless mistakes, forgetfulness in daily routines, and struggling to stay organized.

Hyperactivity and impulsivity: Fidgeting, excessive talking, restlessness (including internal restlessness in adults), interrupting others, and acting without thinking.

However, Dr. Awais Aftab, a psychiatrist in Cleveland, Ohio, and clinical associate professor of psychiatry at Case Western Reserve University, has questioned whether the term “attention deficit” adequately captures the condition.

“The condition’s name notwithstanding, ‘attention deficit’ may be the wrong conceptual framing for ADHD,” he wrote in an article in The New York Times.

Also read: ADHD: Your Pupils May Explain How The Brain Handles Attention, Says New Indian Study

ADHD May Be More About Sustained Engagement

Aftab argued that ADHD may involve difficulties with the brain's ability to assign importance to a task and sustain the effort needed to complete it, rather than simply an inability to filter out distractions.

People with ADHD can often concentrate on activities that interest them. The difficulty may arise when they need to maintain attention and effort over time, particularly when tasks are repetitive or offer little immediate reward.

“If attention is about the mind homing in on what’s relevant in a given moment, engagement is about keeping that spotlight pointed at the same target over time,” Aftab wrote.

His argument offers a different way of thinking about some of the everyday challenges associated with ADHD, including starting tasks, staying organized, and following through on activities that require sustained mental effort.

What Do ADHD Medications Do?

ADHD is often treated with stimulant medications, such as Adderall, which can help reduce symptoms and improve attention and impulse control.

Aftab argued that the effects of these medications may extend beyond attention itself.

“Stimulants create what looks like improved attention and focus, but they really do so by enhancing the salience of mundane activities – tricking the brain into assigning greater worth and significance to things like math homework and laundry,” he said.

Citing a study published in Cell that examined the effects of stimulants on the brain, Aftab suggested that the medications' effects on brain networks could support a broader understanding of ADHD. However, findings about how stimulants affect the brain do not, by themselves, establish that ADHD is primarily a problem of motivation or task engagement rather than attention.

Aftab also suggested that some patients may rely on medication to keep up with lifestyles that are not suited to their needs. This raises broader questions about how treatment, daily demands, and individual needs intersect, rather than suggesting that medication is unnecessary.

He also emphasized evidence linking ADHD medication use with lower risks of adverse outcomes, including death, self-harm, transport accidents, criminality, and addiction-related problems.

Joint pain in your 30s and 40s can stem from sports injuries, obesity, a sedentary lifestyle, muscle weakness, or repetitive strain. It can also signal arthritis, including rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, which can affect younger adults.

On World Arthritis Day, experts warned that joint pain that persists, keeps returning, or occurs with swelling, prolonged morning stiffness, or restricted movement should not be ignored. Sudden, severe pain in a hot, swollen joint—especially with fever—requires urgent medical evaluation.

Dr. Atul Shrivastava, Consultant, Orthopedics and Joint Replacement Surgery, Narayana Hospital, Howrah, told HealthandMe that chronic joint pain should not be dismissed as fatigue or the result of a sedentary lifestyle.

“Prolonged sitting, a sedentary lifestyle, weakened muscle tone, and sudden leaps in physical activity can all contribute to musculoskeletal pain without necessarily indicating the presence of arthritis.”

Dr. Rakesh Rajput, Head of Orthopedics, CK Birla Hospitals, CMRI, Kolkata, said, “Sedentary lifestyles, obesity, poor posture, sports injuries, nutritional deficiencies, and repetitive strain from daily activities can contribute to joint problems.”

Morning Stiffness Or Arthritis? Signs To Watch For

Also read: From Better Sleep To Stronger Bones: Here’s How Magnesium Can Help Boost Your Health

Occasional stiffness after waking up or sitting for long periods may result from inactivity or muscle strain. However, recurring morning stiffness accompanied by swelling, tenderness, or restricted movement warrants medical attention.

“Occasional stiffness after waking up or remaining in one position for a long time may result from inactivity or muscle and joint strain. However, recurring morning stiffness, especially when accompanied by joint swelling, tenderness or restricted movement, deserves attention,” Dr. Shrivastava said.

Morning stiffness lasting 30–60 minutes or longer may be associated with inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Osteoarthritis can also cause stiffness after rest, which often improves with gentle movement. However, these patterns alone cannot confirm a diagnosis.

Other warning signs include:

• Persistent joint swelling or warmth
• Difficulty performing routine activities
• Pain or stiffness affecting multiple joints
• Reduced joint movement or persistent tenderness

Rheumatoid arthritis can affect the same joints on both sides of the body, particularly the hands and wrists, although symptoms vary. Persistent symptoms warrant medical assessment rather than reliance on painkillers or home remedies.

A suddenly hot, swollen, and severely painful joint, particularly when accompanied by fever, requires urgent medical evaluation to rule out a serious condition such as a joint infection.

Knee Pain In Your 30s And 40s: What's Behind It?

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Knee pain can result from sports injuries, ligament or meniscal problems, kneecap-related conditions, muscle weakness, overuse, or early osteoarthritis.

Dr. Shrivastava said, “Knee pain in the 30s and 40s can have several causes, and arthritis is only one possibility. Pain may arise from sports injuries, meniscal or ligament problems, kneecap-related conditions, muscle weakness, overuse or early osteoarthritis. Identifying the cause is essential because treatment differs depending on the underlying problem.”

Excess body weight increases stress on the knees, while weak supporting muscles and sudden increases in exercise intensity can aggravate symptoms. However, appropriately selected, progressive exercise can improve muscle strength and joint function.

Persistent pain, recurrent swelling, locking, or instability should be assessed by an orthopedic specialist. Sudden severe pain, an inability to bear weight, or a hot, swollen knee requires prompt medical attention.

Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include physical therapy, activity modification, weight management, and medication when appropriate.

Can You Prevent Joint Problems?

Maintaining a healthy weight, strengthening the muscles that support the joints, staying physically active, and preventing injuries can help maintain joint health. Gradually increasing exercise intensity and avoiding prolonged inactivity may also help reduce strain on the joints.

Not all forms of arthritis are preventable. Persistent pain, swelling, or stiffness should prompt medical evaluation rather than self-diagnosis.