1 in 1,000 to 1 in 1,100 live births worldwide are children born with down syndrome. The United Nations notes that each year, approximately 3,000 to 5,000 children are born with this chromosome disorder.

It is a genetic condition caused when an unusual cell division result in an extra full or even partial copy of chromosome 21. This extra genetic material causes the developmental changes and physical features of Down syndrome. The term "syndrome" here refers to a set of symptoms that tend to happen together. With a syndrome, there is a pattern of differences or issues in an individual's development. The condition is named after and English Physician, John Langdon Down, who was the first one to describe it.

What Is Chromosome 21?

As per the National Institute of Health's Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, down syndrome is caused by a random error in cell division that results in the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

This kind of error is called nondisjunction. This happens when one cell divides in two, pairs of chromosomes are split so that one of the pair goes to one cell and the other from the pair goes to the other cell. In nondisjunction, something goes wrong and both chromosomes from one pair go into one cell and no chromosomes from that pair go into another cell.

Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell, which is divided into pairs of 23. Two copies of chromosome 21, one copy inherited from each parent, form one of the pairs. It is the smallest human chromosome that spans about 48 million base pairs, which are the building blocks of DNA. It represents in 1.5 to 2% of the total DNA in cells.

In 2000, researchers who worked on the Human Genome Project announced that they had determined the sequence of base pairs that make up this chromosome. Chromosome 21 was the second human chromosome to be fully sequenced.

Down syndrome happens when Trisomy 21 occurs, which means that each cell is the body has three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two copies.

In rare cases, Down syndrome occurs when a portion of chromosome 21 attaches (translocates) to another chromosome during the formation of reproductive cells (eggs or sperm) or early in fetal development. As a result, individuals have two full copies of chromosome 21, along with additional genetic material from chromosome 21 attached to a different chromosome. This genetic variation is known as translocation Down syndrome.

Chromosome Changes Than Can Cause Down Syndrome

While Trisomy 21 causes down syndrome, there are three types of Trisomy chromosomal changes that occurs:

Complete Trisomy 21: This is the most common form of Down syndrome, occurring when an error during the formation of an egg or sperm results in an extra chromosome 21. When the egg and sperm unite, all resulting cells carry three copies of chromosome 21. This type, known as complete trisomy 21, accounts for nearly all cases of Down syndrome.

Mosaic Trisomy 21: In a small percentage (less than 5%) of cases, some but not all cells in the body have an extra chromosome 21. This condition, called mosaic trisomy 21 or “mosaicism,” occurs when an error in cell division happens early in development—either after a normal egg and sperm unite or when some cells lose the extra chromosome. The symptoms may vary depending on how many cells carry the extra chromosome.

Translocation Trisomy 21: In this less common form, only part of an extra chromosome 21 is present in the cells. This extra segment attaches (or “translocates”) to another chromosome and is passed along as cells divide. While translocation trisomy 21 accounts for a small number of Down syndrome cases, individuals with this type generally do not have distinct cognitive or medical differences compared to those with complete trisomy 21.

Building muscle mass offers more than just aesthetic benefits—it can help you achieve more balance, improve blood sugar management and boost mental well-being. However, the ease of gaining muscle can vary depending on your body type. If you've struggled to bulk up despite consistent effort, then probably you are mesomorph. On the contrary, if you are an ectomorph and an endomorph, then you'll struggle to gain weight.

What Are Body Types?

Body types, or somatotypes, are generally classified into three categories: mesomorphs, ectomorphs, and endomorphs. Mesomorphs, in particular, are known for their athletic build, with broad shoulders, narrow waists, and a natural propensity for muscle growth. According to personal trainer Phil Catudal, who spoke to a leading fitness publication, mesomorphs are easily identifiable by their proportions—if your waist and hips are about the same width, you might fall into this category.

Beyond physical appearance, mesomorphs have an edge in muscle-building due to their naturally higher muscle mass and lower fat levels. This implies that they can gain significant results from moderate workouts, making them well-suited to activities requiring strength and stamina.

What Is The Mesomorphic Advantage?

The mesomorphic advantage lies in their ability to build muscle quickly and maintain it. This is because they have a balanced composition of muscle and fat, which allows mesomorphs to achieve results with less effort than other body types. Unsurprisingly, many athletes possess mesomorphic traits. However, mesomorphs are not immune to weight gain. While they may gain fat as easily as muscle, they can shed excess weight effectively by combining a healthy diet with exercise.

What About Ectomorphs and Endomorphs?

Ectomorphs are the body types that are characterized by their lean frames and they often struggle to gain weight. Therefore, it is tougher for them to gain muscles, despite accurate exercise and diet.

On the other hand, endomorphs tend to carry more body fat, which can obscure their muscle mass and make workouts more challenging.

However, it is not impossible to gain muscles for these two body types. Tailored workouts and diet is the answer. Ectomorphs benefit from high-calorie, nutrient-dense diets and strength training with heavier weights, as the International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA) advises. Endomorphs, meanwhile, may focus on calorie control, muscle-building exercises, and high-intensity cardio to improve endurance and shed fat.

ALSO READ: 20-Minute Thigh Workout You Can Nail Without Getting Off The Floor

Regardless of the body type, there are a few exercises that help muscle gain. They include squats, deadlifts, bench presses, overhead presses and pull-ups.

1. Squats: A foundational exercise that targets the lower body, improving leg strength and core stability.

2. Deadlifts: A compound movement that strengthens the back, glutes, and hamstrings while enhancing overall power.

3. Bench Presses: A key upper-body exercise that builds chest, shoulder, and tricep muscles.

4. Overhead Presses: A shoulder-focused lift that also engages the core for stability and balance.

5. Pull-ups: A bodyweight exercise that develops upper-back, bicep, and grip strength.

When was the last time you checked in on your health? Too many men push through pain, ignoring warning signs until it's too late. Whether it's heart disease, mental illness, or prostate problems, the truth is that men are often at serious risk for their health—many of which can be avoided. The problem? Stigma, social pressure, and the idea that asking for help is a sign of weakness keep too many from doing something about it.

The silent suffering of men's health issues is far more prevalent than most are aware. Social stigmas around receiving medical attention dissuade men from seeking care, resulting in delayed diagnoses and avoidable complications. Studies have shown that men only see doctors less often than women, frequently neglecting symptoms until ailments are advanced. This averting of the issue is a major contributor to the sad fact that, on average, men will die 4.5 years before women of largely preventable ailments.

Although most men think they are healthy, a proactive process can greatly reduce the risk of chronic disease. Here are four significant health issues men experience and how to prevent them before they are life-threatening.

1. Heart Disease

Heart disease continues to be the number one killer of men globally. Sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy diet, too much alcohol, and smoking lead to ailments like coronary artery disease, heart attacks, and high blood pressure. But through early care and change of habits, heart disease is quite preventable.

How to Reduce Your Risk:

• Exercise On a Regular Basis: Take up a minimum of 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity or 75 minutes of intense physical activity per week.
• Adopt a Heart-Healthy Diet: Emphasize whole foods, lean protein sources, fruits, vegetables, and healthy fats and reduce process foods and sweetened foods.
• Monitor Your Health: Check blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels at regular intervals.
• Quit Smoking and Limit Alcohol: Smoking profoundly raises the risk of heart disease, and high alcohol consumption may lead to elevated blood pressure.

2. Prostate Health

Prostate health is a major concern, especially as men age. Conditions like an enlarged prostate and prostate cancer can significantly impact quality of life. Prostate cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers among men, making early detection critical.

How to Lower Your Risk:

• Get Regular Screenings: Men over 50 should discuss prostate cancer screening with their doctors. Those with a family history should consider earlier screenings.
• Adopt a Prostate-Friendly Diet: A healthy diet of vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats can help maintain prostate function.
• Explore Treatment Options for an Enlarged Prostate: Changes in lifestyle, medications, and in certain cases, surgery may alleviate symptoms.
• Consider Supportive Supplements: Some supplements help maintain prostate and testosterone health, which ensures total well-being among aging men.

3. Mental Health

Despite growing awareness, mental illness is one of the most under-addressed concerns for men. Depression, anxiety, and stress are frequently unreported because of stigma and social expectations of masculinity. Low testosterone can also lead to mental illness, influencing mood, drive, and quality of life.

How to Lower Your Risk:

• Talk about It: Having open dialogue with friends, family members, or a mental health expert can truly make a difference.
• Seek Professional Help: Therapy, counseling, or even mental health online support can be sought.
• Develop Stress Relief Measures: Mindfulness, meditation, and regular exercise can reduce stress levels.
• Track Symptoms: Keeping an eye on shifts in mood, energy, or sleep can pick up on early mental health problems.

4. Erectile Dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is usually regarded as a humiliating condition, but it may also be an initial indicator of certain underlying conditions such as heart disease and diabetes. There are many men who do not approach doctors for medical opinion, thereby creating more complications.

How to Lower Your Risk:

Break the Silence: Honest communication with partners and doctors can bring successful treatment methods.

Lead a Healthy Lifestyle: Eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly, and staying away from excess alcohol and tobacco can enhance sexual health.

Periodic Health Check-ups: ED may be related to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or hormonal imbalances, hence periodic medical check-ups are vital.

Seasonal allergies are more than just a nuisance—they can lead to persistent sneezing, itchy eyes, a runny nose, and a cough that lingers for weeks or months. The ongoing spring season also marks the beginning of tree pollen season, which is followed by grass pollen in the summer and weed pollen in late summer and fall. Crosswinds carrying pollen from other areas, along with rising temperatures, have made allergy symptoms more erratic and harder to predict. However, there are always solutions to these problems.

Keep These Items In Your Toolkit To Battle Seasonal Health

Nasal sprays: While many allergy sufferers turn to antihistamines first, nasal sprays should be the primary daily treatment. Steroid nasal sprays reduce inflammation in the nasal passages, relieving congestion over time. However, they do not provide immediate relief and must be used consistently for several days or up to two weeks for full effectiveness.

Nasal sprays containing fluticasone or triamcinolone are recommended. For best results, the spray should be aimed toward the ear rather than straight up the nose to ensure better absorption. Nasal rinses can also help flush out allergens inhaled throughout the day.

Oral antihistamines: Antihistamines in liquid or pill form provide quick relief from seasonal allergy symptoms. For children with severe symptoms, combining antihistamines with a nasal spray can be even more effective.

Non-sedating antihistamines such as cetirizine, levocetirizine, loratadine, and fexofenadine are preferred, as they start working within 30 minutes and offer relief for 24 hours. In contrast, diphenhydramine can cause drowsiness and lasts only six hours.

Ideally, antihistamines and nasal sprays should be started about two weeks before spring—typically around mid-February. However, if treatment has not yet begun, it is never too late to start.

Eye drops: For itchy, watery eyes, allergy eye drops containing olopatadine can help prevent histamine release, the primary trigger for eye irritation. These drops are available in different concentrations, with higher doses recommended for children with severe symptoms. Natural tears and warm compresses can also provide soothing relief.

Beyond medications: If over-the-counter medications are not sufficient, allergy shots (immunotherapy) may be an option. While most health experts do not recommend allergy shots for children under five, school-age children and adolescents with persistent symptoms may benefit from desensitization therapy. Sublingual immunotherapy, approved for grass, weed, and dust mite allergies, offers another treatment alternative.

Can Lifestyle Changes Help Prevent Seasonal Allergies?

Monitoring local pollen counts is crucial to minimizing exposure. On high pollen days, staying indoors and keeping windows closed can help. After outdoor activities, showering, washing hair, and changing clothes can prevent allergens from spreading indoors. Wearing an N95 mask and sunglasses may also reduce pollen exposure. Running an air purifier can further reduce allergens.

When To See An Allergist?

If symptoms persist despite treatment, consulting an allergist may be necessary to determine the underlying cause. Allergy testing can distinguish between pollen allergies and other triggers, such as dust mites or pet dander, which require different management strategies. In cases where allergies lead to complications like chronic sinus infections, asthma attacks, or eczema flares, a specialist can provide personalized treatment plans.