From controlling body temperature and flushing out toxins, adequate hydration plays a vital role in our general health and well-being, water is a life essential. However, while dehydration garners significant attention, overhydration, or drinking excessive amounts of water, is a condition that can have serious and sometimes fatal consequences.

Although it may sound bizarre since drinking water is said to be the solution for most health related problems it is important to recognize how much water is considered "too much" or the risks involved with being overhydrated can maintain a healthy balance.

What Is Water Intoxication?

Water intoxication, also termed hyperhydration, water poisoning or water toxemia, develops when an individual drinks much more water than the kidney can excrete. The main function of the kidneys in the human body is the processing and excretion of excess water. However, the human kidneys can process only up to 0.8 to 1.0 liters of water at a time. Drinking an amount that exceeds this may overwhelm the kidneys and put the electrolyte balance out of sync in the human body.

Electrolytes, especially sodium, are essential in maintaining fluid balance within and outside cells. Hyponatremia is the condition when sodium levels fall below 135 mmol/L, resulting from excessive water intake. This causes water to shift into cells, swelling them. In the brain, this can cause severe complications, including coma or even death.

Symptoms of Water Intoxication

The symptoms of water intoxication vary from mild to severe. Early symptoms are often similar to dehydration, which makes self-diagnosis challenging. Common symptoms include:

• Headaches
• Nausea and vomiting
• Muscle cramps or weakness
• Fatigue or drowsiness
• Confusion and disorientation

In more serious cases, water intoxication can cause seizures, loss of consciousness, or swelling in the brain. These complications can be fatal if left untreated.

A notable case occurred in 2007 when a woman participating in a water-drinking contest tragically died after consuming nearly two gallons of water in under two hours. More recently, actress Brooke Shields experienced a grand mal seizure attributed to excessive water consumption.

Causes of Water Intoxication

Water intoxication is rare, but certain scenarios can increase the risk:

1. Sporting Events and Endurance Training

These endurance athletes are prone to water intoxication, especially if they drink large amounts of water without replacing lost electrolytes. Hyponatremia usually happens during long races or marathons as individuals mistake fatigue and muscle cramps for dehydration and continue drinking water in excess.

2. Military Training

Overhydration among military personnel is usually due to severe physical activity in extreme environmental conditions. The total number of hyponatremia cases documented from 2007 through 2022 for the active duty in the United States exceeds 1,600, with a note to this problem on exertion-related overhydration.

3. Mental Health Conditions

Compulsive water drinking, known as psychogenic polydipsia, is linked with some mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and psychosis. People with these conditions tend to drink too much water, causing a hazardous electrolyte imbalance.

4. Drug Abuse

Drugs such as MDMA (ecstasy) raise the body temperature and make people thirsty, and at times, some people tend to drink excess water at events like music festivals. MDMA also leads to urine retention, thus exacerbating the dangers of water intoxication.

How Much Water Is Too Much?

The exact amount of water that causes intoxication varies from one person to another. However, drinking more than 1 liter of water per hour for several hours raises the risk. For healthy individuals, the risk of overhydration is low unless taking part in extreme physical activity or ignoring thirst cues.

Certain medical conditions, such as kidney or liver disorders, can impair the body's ability to process fluids, and even moderate water intake may be harmful. Similarly, certain medications, such as diuretics and antipsychotics, can affect the perception of thirst or fluid regulation.

How Much Water Is Enough?

The widely touted recommendation of eight 8-ounce glasses of water per day has little basis in fact. According to the National Academy of Medicine, a daily total fluid intake is about 15 cups (3.7 liters) for males and 11 cups (2.7 liters) for females, from beverage sources and from food. Usually, about 20 percent of daily hydration comes from foods such as fruits and vegetables.

A better rule of thumb is to listen to your body and drink water based on thirst. Use the color of your urine as an indicator:

• Light yellow urine indicates proper hydration.
• Dark yellow urine may indicate dehydration.

Older adults, whose thirst mechanisms may decline with age, should be proactive about maintaining hydration, especially during illness or hot weather.

Water Intoxication vs. Dehydration

The symptoms of water intoxication—such as headaches, fatigue, and muscle weakness—are similar to those of dehydration. If you are unsure which condition you are experiencing, seek medical attention immediately rather than self-treating with more water.

Preventing Water Intoxication

To avoid the dangers of overhydration:

• Drink water gradually throughout the day rather than consuming large amounts at once.
• Replace lost electrolytes post high-intensity exercise or heavy sweating.
• Consider using sports drinks or salty snacks to help replenish sodium.
• Keep track of fluid consumption during long-duration activities, and do not consume more water than the body is losing in terms of electrolytes.
• If on medications or have specific medical conditions, check with your doctor regarding the safety of drinking water.

For signs of severe water intoxication-including confusion, drowsiness, seizures, and loss of consciousness-customer is advised to seek medical assistance immediately. In the meanwhile, a salty snack would help to temporarily correct low sodium levels.

Hydration is important to health, but overhydration can be a serious risk; the secret is in finding a balance. Drink enough water to satisfy your body, but not so much that it overwhelms your system. Remember, water is life, but moderation keeps it that way.

Hyponatremia (low sodium level in the blood). National Kidney Foundation. 2023.

Water Toxicity. NIH. 2023

Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia: 2017 Update. Front Med (Lausanne). 2017

Update: Exertional Hyponatremia Among Active Component Members of the U.S. Armed Forces, 2007–2022

Alcohol is often seen as harmful mainly for the liver or heart, but its impact goes much deeper—reaching down to our DNA. Even moderate drinking can silently cause changes at a cellular level, raising long-term health risks that may not be immediately visible. According to Dr. Amit Miglani, Director & HOD – Gastroenterology, Asian Hospital, the breakdown of alcohol in the body produces a toxic chemical called acetaldehyde, which can directly damage DNA inside our cells.

Alcohol Can Damage Your DNA, Not Just Your Liver And Heart

This damage disrupts the body’s natural repair mechanisms, allowing mutations to accumulate over time. Such mutations are linked to several cancers, including cancers of the mouth, throat, liver, breast, and colon. The insidious nature of this damage means that even when you feel healthy, harmful changes may be occurring beneath the surface.

How Alcohol Interferes With DNA Repair

DNA damage can be complex to understand, but its consequences are serious, explains Dr. Arun Kumar Giri, Director – Surgical Oncology, Aakash Healthcare. Normally, the body constantly repairs minor DNA errors. However, alcohol disrupts this repair process, leaving cells vulnerable to mutation and abnormal growth.

Dr. Giri adds that some people have genetic variations that make them break down alcohol more slowly. For these individuals, alcohol stays in the body longer, increasing the likelihood of DNA damage. Over years of repeated exposure, this can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and eventually cancer.

No Completely Safe Level of Alcohol For DNA Health

One of the most important points, Dr. Giri emphasizes, is that there is no entirely safe level of alcohol when it comes to DNA. The risk increases with both the frequency and quantity of drinking. Even occasional binge drinking can be harmful, meaning that how often you drink can be as important—or even more so—than how much you drink at one time.

This perspective shifts the discussion from asking “How much alcohol is too much?” to “How often am I exposing my cells to alcohol-induced damage?” Protecting DNA health requires regular monitoring and mindful drinking habits, even for those who feel healthy today.

Alcohol: Long-Term Health Implications

Alcohol-induced DNA damage is not just a short-term concern. Over time, the accumulation of mutations can significantly increase cancer risk and other serious diseases. Regular health check-ups, a balanced lifestyle, and moderation, or complete avoidance of alcohol are crucial steps for safeguarding your genetic health and overall well-being.

Dr. Amit Miglani highlights that “It’s not just about the organs you can feel being affected today; it’s about protecting your long-term health, especially your DNA, for the future.”

Dr. Arun Kumar Giri advises, “Understanding the cellular impact of alcohol helps people make informed choices about their drinking habits. Even small changes can significantly reduce the risk of long-term damage.”

New research suggests that menopause may be linked to a loss of grey matter in the brain, which could help explain why women face a higher risk of dementia compared to men. Scientists from the University of Cambridge analysed data from 124,780 women to explore how menopause affects the brain and whether hormone replacement therapy (HRT) might help protect against cognitive decline.

Menopause May Be Linked to Changes in Brain Structure

The researchers found that menopause was associated with reduced levels of grey matter, an essential part of the brain involved in thinking, memory, emotional processing and movement. The findings also noted that this stage of life is often accompanied by anxiety, depression and sleep problems. Previous research has already shown that menopause can affect cognitive abilities such as attention, language, learning and memory.

How Menopause And HRT Affect Thinking Speed

Published in the journal Psychological Medicine, the research divided participants into three groups: women who had not yet reached menopause, post-menopausal women who had never used HRT, and post-menopausal women who were taking HRT. Participants answered questions about sleep patterns, anxiety and depression, and some completed cognitive tests measuring memory and reaction time.

Around 11,000 women also underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, allowing scientists to closely examine brain structure. On average, menopause began at age 49 among the participants, and women who started HRT typically began treatment at around the same age.

Sleep, Fatigue and Mental Health Changes

The findings showed that post-menopausal women were more likely to struggle with insomnia, get less sleep overall and feel more fatigued. Interestingly, women using HRT reported the highest levels of tiredness across all three groups, even though they slept for a similar amount of time as those not taking HRT.

All post-menopausal women, regardless of whether they were using hormone therapy, reported greater fatigue compared to women who had not yet experienced menopause. Researchers also observed that this stage of life had an impact on cognitive function.

Dr Katharina Zuhlsdorff, from the psychology department at the University of Cambridge, explained: “As we age, our reaction times naturally slow down. This happens to both women and men and is part of normal ageing. You might still reach the right answer to a quiz question, but younger people tend to respond faster. Our findings suggest menopause speeds up this slowing process, while HRT seems to slow it down slightly.”

Brain Regions Linked to Memory and Emotion Affected

The study identified significant reductions in grey matter volume among post-menopausal women. These changes were seen in the hippocampus, which plays a key role in learning and memory, the entorhinal cortex, which supports memory formation and spatial awareness, and the anterior cingulate cortex, which helps regulate attention and emotions.

Menopause As A Period of Increased Vulnerability

Professor Barbara Sahakian, the senior author of the study from the department of psychiatry, said: “The brain areas where we observed these changes are the same regions commonly affected by Alzheimer’s disease. Menopause may make women more vulnerable later in life. While it does not explain everything, it could help clarify why dementia affects nearly twice as many women as men.”

Michelle Dyson, chief executive of the Alzheimer’s Society, noted that women account for roughly two-thirds of people living with Alzheimer’s disease in the UK. “Although we do not yet fully understand why women are more affected than men, hormones are thought to play a role,” she said.

“This large-scale study strengthens evidence that menopause has an impact on the brain, including physical changes such as reduced brain volume. However, without long-term follow-up to see whether participants later develop dementia, we cannot be certain that these menopause-related brain changes directly increase dementia risk.

“There are steps people can take today to lower their dementia risk, including regular exercise, avoiding smoking and cutting back on alcohol. Anyone concerned about themselves or a loved one can use the Alzheimer’s Society dementia symptoms checklist as a starting point before speaking to a GP.”

The research also found that women taking HRT were more likely to report mental health challenges. However, the analysis suggested these women already had poorer psychological wellbeing before starting hormone treatment.

Dr Christelle Langley, from the psychiatry department, said: “Menopause is something most women will experience, and it can be a major life change whether or not HRT is used. During this time, healthy habits such as staying active, exercising regularly and eating a balanced diet become especially important to help reduce some of its effects.”

Dr Louise Newson, a GP and women’s hormone specialist, added: “Many women notice changes in memory and concentration around menopause. This study suggests these symptoms may have a biological explanation rather than being brushed off as stress or ageing, highlighting menopause as a key window for protecting brain health and providing personalised care.”

More than 10 million adults, young people, and children in the UK are currently living with arthritis, according to a 2025 report by Arthritis UK. The NHS states that osteoarthritis is the most common form of the condition nationwide.

As per Cleveland Clinic, osteoarthritis develops gradually as joints become stiff and painful due to wear and tear. Symptoms can vary depending on the joint affected and the extent of damage, but pain, swelling, and reduced movement are common. While medication is often prescribed to manage symptoms, the NHS cautions that some commonly used treatments can carry health risks if taken long-term or without proper guidance.

One of the most frequently used pain relief options is non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, commonly known as NSAIDs.

What Are NSAIDs?

NSAIDs, or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are commonly prescribed by GPs to help relieve pain, swelling, and inflammation. They are available in several forms, including tablets, capsules, suppositories, creams, gels, and injections. Some NSAIDs can be purchased over the counter, while stronger versions require a prescription.

These medicines are often relied upon for day-to-day pain relief by people with osteoarthritis, particularly during flare-ups.

NHS Warning: Who Should Be Cautious When Using NSAIDs?

The NHS advises that NSAIDs may not be suitable for everyone. Extra caution is recommended for people with asthma, a history of stomach ulcers, angina, or those who have previously experienced a heart attack or stroke. The NHS also advises that individuals taking low-dose aspirin should always consult their GP before using NSAIDs.

Long-term or incorrect use can increase the risk of stomach bleeding, cardiovascular problems, and kidney issues, making it important to review pain management plans regularly.

Can Natural Compounds Like GOPO Support Joint Health?

Consultant Rheumatologist Dr Rod Hughes explains that natural compounds are increasingly being explored as supportive options for joint health.

“Natural compounds derived from plants have long been used in both traditional and modern medicine to support joint health. One such compound is GOPO, which is derived from rose hips (Rosa canina). Research indicates that GOPO can help relieve joint pain due to its anti-inflammatory properties,” he says.

“Rather than simply masking symptoms, GOPO works by helping to regulate the body’s inflammatory response, which is a key driver of joint stiffness, swelling, and discomfort. It offers a promising alternative to traditional painkillers, with fewer risks of side effects, making it a more sustainable option for managing joint discomfort.”

Lifestyle Changes Proven To Ease Osteoarthritis Pain

According to Dr Hughes, lifestyle measures form the foundation of osteoarthritis management.

“Lifestyle choices play a central role in relieving osteoarthritis pain and helping people stay active,” he explains. “Research shows that regular, gentle exercise supported by physiotherapy, such as walking, swimming, and yoga, can be highly effective.”

“These activities help keep joints mobile and strengthen the muscles and ligaments that support them, which reduces stiffness and eases pressure on painful joints. It is also important to balance activity with rest to avoid flare-ups caused by overuse.”

Why Weight Management Matters For Joint Health

Weight management is another key factor in controlling osteoarthritis symptoms. “Maintaining a healthy body weight is especially important,” says Dr Hughes. “Extra weight places additional load on joints, particularly the knees and hips, which can worsen pain and accelerate joint damage. Even modest weight loss has been shown to significantly reduce pain and improve mobility.”

How Diet Influences Inflammation And Joint Pain

Interestingly, diet can also play a role in managing inflammation linked to osteoarthritis. “Eating plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds, along with at least two portions of oily fish each week, provides antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids that help reduce inflammation and protect against cell damage,” Dr Hughes explains.

“In my practice, I often recommend combining these dietary changes with natural supplements such as turmeric or GOPO to provide additional support for joint health.”

Reducing Reliance On Long-Term NSAIDs Safely

For patients hoping to reduce their dependence on NSAIDs, Dr Hughes stresses the importance of medical supervision.

“Any reduction in NSAIDs should be done gradually and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. This helps ensure pain remains well controlled while avoiding sudden flare-ups or withdrawal issues,” he says.

“By combining regular movement, physiotherapy, supportive nutrition, and appropriate natural supplements, many patients can take a more balanced approach to managing chronic joint pain. Over time, these strategies may allow people to rely less on medication while maintaining a good quality of life.”