The COVID-19 pandemic may be over, but our immune systems are still feeling the impact. After years of battling constant viral threats, from COVID-19 to seasonal flu and other infections, our body’s defense system is exhausted. Many people continue to experience lingering inflammation, frequent illnesses, and slower recovery times. This extended state of immune stress has compromised us further to chronic illness, including autoimmune diseases and even neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's. So why is our immune system still in trouble? And how do we give it its power back? Understanding immune exhaustion is the beginning of rebuilding our body's natural immunity.

A weakened immune system makes people more susceptible to disease, mental illnesses, and even sleep disorders. Now, new research indicates that immune system depletion may play an important role in the onset of Parkinson's disease, a degenerative neurologic disorder that compromises movement and cognition.

Role of Inflammation in Parkinson's Disease

Dysfunctional immune response is a leading cause of long-standing inflammation within the body, that has been found to contribute towards a multitude of conditions, including cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's.

As people age, their immune system naturally becomes less effective. This deterioration, referred to as immune exhaustion, may be a key contributor to the onset and progression of Parkinson’s disease. Rebecca Wallings, a Parkinson’s Foundation Launch Award grant recipient and senior postdoctoral fellow at the University of Florida, believes that an accumulation of exhausted immune cells could be driving neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s patients.

How a Tired Immune System Might Affect Parkinson's?

Parkinson's disease is most commonly linked with the degeneration and loss of dopaminergic neurons—motor nerve cells that produce dopamine, an essential neurotransmitter for movement. While researchers have long suspected inflammation is involved in this neurodegeneration, the mechanisms are not yet well understood.

Wallings' study is on immune cell exhaustion, a process by which aging immune cells fail to control immune responses effectively. Her research indicates that instead of dampening inflammation in Parkinson's patients, attempts should be made to rejuvenate the immune system to regain its functionality.

Energy Deficiency in Immune Cells

One of the major findings of Wallings' work is the function of mitochondrial impairment in immune cell exhaustion. Mitochondria are commonly called the powerhouses of cells, as they are vital for generating energy. As mitochondria age and become inefficient, immune cells fail to function well, potentially accelerating neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.

Wallings has found that mutations in the LRRK2 gene, a recognized genetic risk factor for Parkinson's disease, are linked with defective mitochondrial function and immune cell exhaustion. Her current work includes testing various therapeutic approaches to restore mitochondrial function in immune cells with the potential to enhance the immune system and potentially prevent or treat Parkinson's disease.

Will Rejuvenating the Immune System Help in Treatment?

For decades, the standard practice in treating Parkinson's has been to suppress brain inflammation. Yet Wallings' work indicates that instead of slowing down immune responses, restoring the immune system could be a more successful strategy. By addressing mitochondrial impairment and immune resilience, researchers can potentially reverse or slow down Parkinson's disease.

Wallings is now looking into how to rejuvenate immune cells by fixing mitochondria. She studies immune cells from patients with Parkinson's as well as from healthy subjects and performs experiments on animal models to determine if rejuvenation of the immune system could result in improved disease outcomes.

Lifestyle Factors That May Affect Parkinson's Risk

While there is no cure for Parkinson's disease, some lifestyle adjustments may decrease the chances of developing the illness. Since neurodegenerative diseases are associated with chronic inflammation and immune dysfunction, developing habits that enhance immune function might prove helpful.

Diet: There is evidence to suggest that eating in accordance with the Mediterranean or MIND diets, both high in antioxidants, healthy fats, and anti-inflammatory foods, can encourage brain wellness and reduce Parkinson's risk.

Avoiding Dangerous Substances: Restricting alcohol and nicotine use can maintain a robust immune system and suppress inflammation.

Reducing Stress: Chronic stress weakens immune function, so methods such as meditation, exercise, and sufficient sleep can lead to improved overall well-being.

The hype around GLP-1 weight loss drugs keeps growing due to numerous new benefits as well as side effects that are discovered every other day. A recent study found that the risk of aortic aneurysm rupture is significantly less among GLP-1 users. The study was published in the Journal of Vascular Surgery.

GLP-1 receptor agonists is a a class of medicines that is widely used to treat type 2 diabetes and obesity. Users have reported substantial weight loss results with the help of these medicines like Ozempic, Mounjaro, Zepbound and others.

Now, researchers have found that people with abdominal aortic aneurysms who used GLP-1 drugs had a 46% lower risk of rupture over five years compared with those who did not use these medicines. This means that GLP-1 drugs may also have cardiovascular benefit apart from diabetes and obesity.

The study analysed health records from 123 healthcare organisations in the US. It is based on more than 412,000 people diagnosed with abdominal aortic aneurysms who underwent imaging surveillance every six months.

After matching patients based on factors like age, sex, diabetes, high blood pressure, smoking, heart disease and kidney disease, the researchers compared 13,722 GLP-1 receptor agonist users with an equal number of non-users.

GLP-1 Drugs Linked To Fewer Aortic Aneurysm Ruptures

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After five years, aortic aneurysm rupture was recorded in about 1.6% of people taking GLP-1 drugs, compared to 2.4% of those who were not taking them.

The researchers reported a hazard ratio of 0.538, indicating a 46.2% lower risk of rupture among GLP-1 drug users after adjustment.

The difference was also observed at the two-year mark, when rupture occurred in 1.1% of GLP-1 users compared to 1.8% of non-users.

People taking GLP-1 drugs also had fewer elective aneurysm repairs. At five years, 2.1% of users underwent elective repair compared to 3% of non-users.

The study further found lower rates of major cardiovascular events like heart attacks, strokes and heart failure, as well as lower all-cause mortality among GLP-1 users.

What Is An Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm?

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An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) occurs when a section of the aorta, the body's largest artery, becomes enlarged or bulges due to weakening of its wall. It develops in the part of the aorta that passes through the abdomen.

Many abdominal aortic aneurysms do not cause symptoms and are detected during tests. However, as the aneurysm enlarges, its risk of rupture increases.

A ruptured aneurysm is considered to be a medical emergency as it can cause severe internal bleeding. Symptoms may include sudden, severe abdominal or back pain, dizziness, fainting and a rapid heartbeat.

Smoking, older age, high blood pressure, atherosclerosis and a family history of aneurysms are among the risk factors.

GLP-1 Drugs & Lower Risk Of Aortic Aneurysm Rupture Risk

GLP-1 receptor agonists work by mimicking the naturally occurring GLP-1 hormone. They help regulate blood sugar by stimulating insulin release when glucose levels are high, slowing the emptying of stomach and reducing appetite.

Some of their effects may also impact blood vessel health. Abdominal aortic aneurysms develop through several processes, including inflammation, damage to vascular smooth muscle cells and changes in the proteins that maintain the artery wall.

GLP-1 drugs have shown anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular benefits in older research. The researchers suggest these effects may help explain the lower rates of aneurysm-related complications observed in the study.

The findings are promising but do not conclusively prove that GLP-1 medicines prevent aneurysm rupture. This was a retrospective observational study, meaning researchers examined existing health records rather than randomly assigning patients to receive the drugs.

One important limitation was that aneurysm size was not included among the matching variables. Since aneurysm size is a major determinant of rupture risk, differences between the groups could have impacted the findings.

When a woman misses her period, pregnancy is usually the first thing she thinks about. If that is ruled out, stress, weight changes or a hormonal imbalance may seem like the obvious explanations. But when periods become irregular or stop for several months, there may be more to the story.

In some women, these changes can also signal a risk to bone health. The menstrual cycle is controlled by a complex interaction between the brain and the ovaries. Oestrogen, one of the key hormones involved, is important not only for reproductive health but also for maintaining strong bones. It helps regulate the continuous process of bone breakdown and rebuilding.

When oestrogen levels remain low for a prolonged period, this balance can be disturbed, leading to a reduction in bone mineral density and, in some cases, an increased risk of fractures.

Menstrual health is not just about getting a period every month. It can offer important clues about what is happening elsewhere in the body.

Why Do Periods Sometimes Stop?

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One possible cause is functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea, a condition in which the brain reduces the hormonal signals that stimulate the ovaries. It may occur when the body is under physical or emotional stress, particularly in the setting of inadequate food intake, rapid weight loss, excessive exercise or a combination of these factors.

In simple terms, the body may not be getting enough energy to support all its normal functions. Reproductive activity can slow down as a result. If this continues, the effects may extend beyond the menstrual cycle.

Low energy availability can affect hormones involved in bone formation and maintenance. Inadequate intake of protein, calcium and vitamin D may further compromise bone health.

The concern is particularly important in adolescents and young women, because these are the years when the body builds much of its peak bone mass. If this process is disrupted, they may not achieve their full bone-strength potential, which can have implications for bone health later in life. It can happen even when a woman is not underweight.

One common misconception is that only very thin women are at risk. In reality, a woman can have a seemingly healthy body weight and still not be eating enough to meet the demands of her daily activity.

A student under academic pressure may skip meals regularly. A working professional may combine long hours with restrictive eating, while a woman who exercises intensively may not increase her food intake to match her energy needs. In such situations, menstrual changes may be one of the first noticeable signs that something is wrong.

Persistent tiredness, declining exercise performance, poor recovery after workouts and recurrent bone or muscle injuries may provide additional clues.

These symptoms are easy to dismiss as the result of a busy lifestyle, but they deserve attention when they occur alongside irregular or absent periods.

Not Every Missed Period Has The Same Cause

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Although inadequate energy intake and prolonged stress can affect menstruation, they are not the only explanations. Pregnancy must first be ruled out. Other possible causes include polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, raised prolactin levels, premature ovarian insufficiency, chronic illnesses and certain medications.

A woman should seek medical evaluation if her periods stop for three months without an explanation, if her cycles remain persistently irregular, or if menstrual changes are accompanied by significant weight loss, restrictive eating, excessive exercise, bone pain or a stress fracture.

The assessment usually begins with a detailed menstrual history and questions about diet, exercise, weight changes, stress and medication use. Depending on the findings, the doctor may recommend pregnancy testing, blood tests to assess thyroid function and reproductive hormones, prolactin levels and other investigations.

A bone mineral density scan may also be appropriate when periods have been absent for a prolonged period or when additional risk factors for bone loss are present.

Protecting Menstrual Health Also Means Protecting Bone Health

Treatment depends on the underlying cause. When inadequate energy availability is responsible, the priority is to restore a healthy balance between food intake, physical activity and recovery.

This may require nutritional guidance, changes to exercise routines and support for managing psychological stress. A gynaecologist may work with an endocrinologist, dietitian or mental-health professional, depending on the individual’s needs.

Adequate calcium, vitamin D and protein are important for bone health, but supplements alone cannot correct an ongoing energy deficit. Similarly, hormonal medication should not be prescribed simply to produce a period without first understanding why menstruation has stopped.

A menstrual cycle is more than a monthly reproductive event. Persistent changes can provide valuable clues about hormonal function, nutrition and overall health. Paying attention to these changes early can help identify underlying problems and, where necessary, protect bone health for the future.

The manosphere is a network of male-centric online groups, forums and communities that focus on men’s issues, masculinity definition and the changing roles and treatment of men in today’s world. Oftentimes, the content produced in the manosphere leans heavily towards promoting misogyny online, distorting the definitions of feminism and masculinity.

A recent Lancet report highlights this issue, stating that these online communities that promote misogyny, male victimisation and hostility towards feminism are actually a growing public health problem. The report also suggests that this public health concern should be addressed in the same way as obesity or smoking.

The researchers say that the so-called manosphere not only normalises violence and misogyny towards women but also affects men’s mental health, fueling issues like social isolation and discouraging them from seeking help.

In the paper, titled Reframing the manosphere: a public health response to a commercial ecosystem, authors Sarah J Hawkes and Kent Buse describe the manosphere as a “diffuse commercial ecosystem and loose collection of online communities united by shared beliefs about masculinity, misogyny, and male victimisation”.

These communities often promote the idea that men are facing masculinity crisis and social isolation and that feminism has systematically disadvantaged and exploited them. The authors argue that these narratives can wrongfully make young men believe that their personal difficulties are due to women, which could direct their frustration towards the opposite gender.

The authors wrote, “Men’s problems are framed [in the manosphere] as the result of feminism rather than structural conditions, and masculine identity is commodified through products and paid content that normalise and reinforce health-harming and performance-oriented masculinities.”

Manosphere And Men's Mental Health

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The authors identify several conditions that can make boys and young men vulnerable to manosphere content, including loneliness, educational disengagement, social exclusion, financial insecurity and uncertainty about their future.

Prof Sarah Hawkes, the report’s other author, said, “The manosphere offers boys and young men belonging, identity and an explanation for why life feels hard."

She added, “Those needs are real. A response that only removes the manosphere, without offering something credible in its place, will fail. We need to offer boys something better, not just tell them what to avoid.”

The authors also say that they may also reinforce resentment towards women and promote toxic ideas about masculinity, gender, relationships and success. They also say that these communities can harm men's mental health, contribute to body image concerns and discourage them from seeking professional support.

The authors argue that this business model can exploit insecurity while presenting structural problems as individual failures or the result of feminism. Some influencers promote twisted ideas of masculinity and encourage followers to purchase supplements, hormones and financial products.

Prof Kent Buse, a co-author of the paper and co-founder of the social justice thinktank Global 50/50, explained, “This is a business model, not a fringe. Outrage and grievance are good for business, so the system rewards the most extreme content. Expect the playbook that served tobacco so well: blame the individual, and call regulation an attack on freedom. Public health has a tested toolkit for commercial harms and we should use it.”

Online Misogyny Contributes To Violence Against Women

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The report also examines the consequences of following manosphere for women and girls. The authors warn that the manosphere can normalise misogynistic outlooks, reinforce gender inequality and create an environment in which violence against women and girls is more readily accepted.

The concern is not limited to individual posts or influencers. The researchers describe a commercial network in which content creators can benefit from extreme expressions of gender and hostility.

They compare the strategies used by this online ecosystem with those of industries such as tobacco and ultra-processed food, arguing that both can shift responsibility towards individuals while resisting regulation.

“Outrage and grievance are good for business, so the system rewards the most extreme content,” said co-author Kent Buse.

He added, “Boys and men are not the problem. The problem is the conditions that leave them isolated and without a secure future, and the companies that profit from their anger and insecurity.”

Just Censoring Harmful Content May Not Be Enough

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The authors argue that simply removing misogynistic content or restricting access to certain communities will not address the reasons why young men are drawn to them.

Co-author Sarah Hawkes said, “The manosphere offers boys and young men belonging, identity and an explanation for why life feels hard. Those needs are real. A response that only removes the manosphere, without offering something credible in its place, will fail. We need to offer boys something better, not just tell them what to avoid.”

The report also calls for a coordinated response involving governments, schools, healthcare services and community organisations. This includes improving access to education, skills training and employment opportunities, addressing social isolation and ensuring that boys and young men can access mental health services.

Manosphere Is A Public Health Issue

The researchers identify six priorities for action: addressing the social and economic conditions that make young men vulnerable, improving collaboration between health and education services, developing effective communication strategies, regulating harmful platforms, investing in research and monitoring, and confronting the bigger misogyny and anti-gender equality attitudes that keeps these communities running.

They argue that regulation should focus on the commercial incentives that amplify harmful content, rather than placing the entire responsibility on individuals who consume it.